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Definitions for 8-9 (METABOLISM, the totality of an organism's…
Definitions for 8-9
METABOLISM, the totality of an organism's chemical reactions caused by the orderly interactions between molecules
METABOLIC PATHWAY, A specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product
CATABOLIC PATHWAY, releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds
ANABOLIC PATHWAYS / BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS, consumes energy to build complicted molecules from simpler ones.
BIOENERGETICS, the study of how energy flows through living organism
ENERGY, is the capacity to cause change
KINETIC ENERGY, relative motion of objects
THERMAL ENERGY, the kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules
HEAT, thermal energy transferred from one object to another
POTENTIAL ENERGY, energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure
CHEMICAL ENERGY, potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
THERMODYNAMICS, the study of the energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
FIRST LAW OF THERMO, energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed
2ND LAW of THERMO, every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe
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SPONTANEOUS PROCESS, A process that leads to a increase in entropy that proceeds without requiring input of energy
FREE ENERGY, the portion of a systems energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system
EXERGONIC REACTION, A net release of free energy
ENDERGONIC REACTION, absorbs free energy from its surroundings
ENERGY COUPLING, the use of exergonic process to drive an endergonic one
ATP, sugar ribose, with nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.
HYDROLYSIS OF ATP, the reaction of ATP and water yields ADP and inorganic phosphate and releases energy
PHOSPHORAYLATED INTERMEDIATE, the recipient molecule with the phosphate group convalently bonded to it
ENZYME, A macromolecule that acts as a catalyst
CATALYST, A chemical agent that speed up the reaction without being consumed by the reaction
ACTIVATION ENERGY, the initial investment of energy for starting a reaction - the energy required to contort the reactant molecules so the bonds can break
CATALYSIS, A process by which a catalyst selectively speeds up a reaction without itself being consumed
SUBSTRATE, the reactant an enzyme acts on
ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX, enzyme binds to its substrate
ACTIVE SITE, A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme where catalysis occurs
INDUCED FIT, the tightening of the binding after the initial contact
COFACTORS, enzymes that require nonprotein helpers for catalytic activity, often for chemical processes like electron transfers that cannot easily be carried out by the amino acids in proteins
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ALLOSTERIC REGULATION, describes any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate sit
COOPERATIVITY, amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates
FEEDBACK INHIBITION, A metabolic pathway is halted by the inhibitory binding of its enzyme that acts early in the pathway
FERMENTATION, the chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving effervescence and the giving off of heat.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION, Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
AEROBIC RESPIRATION, the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen. Cells break down food in the mitochondria in a long, multistep process that produces roughly 36 ATP. The first step in is glycolysis, the second is the citric acid cycle and the third is the electron transport system.
REDOX REACTIONS, A redox reaction is shorthand for an oxidation-reduction reaction and is a chemical reaction in which one molecule loses electrons while another molecule gains electrons.
OXIDATION, the total or partial loss of electrons
REDUCTION, the total or partial addition of electrons
NAD+, r nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, is a coenzyme found in all living cells, and it's required for the fundamental biological processes that make life possible. But NAD+ levels decline as we age
ETC, a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.
GLYCOLYSIS, the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.
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PROTON-MOTIVE FORCE, the force that promotes movement of protons across membranes downhill the electrochemical potential.
ATP SYNTHASE, . ATP synthase forms ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate (Pi) through oxidative phosphorylation
CHEMIOSMOSIS, the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient.
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION, a process in which some sugars (as glucose) are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide by the action of various yeasts, molds, or bacteria on carbohydrate materials
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, a biological process by which glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate
ACETYL CoA, a molecule that participates in many biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production.
BETA OXIDATION, the catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down[1] in the cytosol in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria in eukaryotes to generate acetyl-CoA
Cycles
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Citrate is converted to its isomer isocitrate, by removal of one water molecule and addition of another
Isocitrate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH. Then the resulting compound loses a CO2 molecule
Another CO2 is lost and the resulting compound is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH the remaining molecule is then attached to a coenzyme A by an unstable bond
CoA is displaced by a phosphate group,which is transferred to GDP, forming GTP, a molecule with functions similar to ATP
Two hydrogens are transferred to FAD, forming FADH2 =, and oxidizing succinate
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The substrate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH and regenerating substate
NADH transfers two electrons to Complex I resulting in four H+ ions being pumped across the inner membrane. NADH is oxidized to NAD+, which is recycled back into the Krebs cycle. Electrons are transferred from Complex I to a carrier molecule (Q), which is reduced to (QH2). Ubiquinol carries the electrons to Complex III
FADH2 transfers electrons to Complex II and the electrons are passed along to ubiquinone (Q). Q is reduced to ubiquinol (QH2), which carries the electrons to Complex III. No H+ ions are transported to the intermembrane space in this process.
The passage of electrons to Complex III drives the transport of four more H+ ions across the inner membrane. QH2 is oxidized and electrons are passed to another electron carrier protein cytochrome C.
Cytochrome C passes electrons to the final protein complex in the chain, Complex IV. Two H+ ions are pumped across the inner membrane. The electrons are then passed from Complex IV to an oxygen (O2) molecule, causing the molecule to split. The resulting oxygen atoms quickly grab H+ ions to form two molecules of water.
ATP synthase moves H+ ions that were pumped out of the matrix by the electron transport chain back into the matrix. The energy from the influx of protons into the matrix is used to generate ATP by the phosphorylation (addition of a phosphate) of ADP. The movement of ions across the selectively permeable mitochondrial membrane and down their electrochemical gradient is called chemiosmosis.
NADH generates more ATP than FADH2. For every NADH molecule that is oxidized, 10 H+ ions are pumped into the intermembrane space. This yields about three ATP molecules. Because FADH2 enters the chain at a later stage (Complex II), only six H+ ions are transferred to the intermembrane space. This accounts for about two ATP molecules. A total of 32 ATP molecules are generated in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation.
converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Glycolysis is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm
Pyruvate dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of pyruvate and a lipoamide to give the acetylated dihydrolipoamide and carbon dioxide. The conversion requires the coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate