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Chapter 6&7 (Microscopes & Surface (Types of Microscopes (Light…

- - - - Brightfield (unstained)
        
        -Image has little contrast/unless pigmented
        -Light passes directly through specimen
      - Brightfield
        (stained)
        
        -The stain dyes enhances the contrast of the specimen
        -Staining produces requires that the cells to be fixed (preserved)
      - Phase-Contrast
        
        Specimens density are amplified to enhance contrast in unstained cells
      - Confocal
        
        Technique eliminates out-of-focus light from a thick sample creating a single plane of fluorescence in the image
        
        Captures sharp images
        
        3-D reconstruction can be created
        
        (see the inside of the cell)
      - Fluorescence
        
        Technique used to visualize the location of fluorescence in cells stained with fluorescence molecules
        ( see the inside of the cell)
    - - Magnification: ratio between specimens size under a microscope to its real size
      - Contrast: difference in brightness between light and dark areas of specimen/background
      - Resolution: Clarity of image
    - - Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
        
        -Focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen
        -Providing images that look 3-D
      - Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
        
        -Focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
        -Use to study the internal structure of cells
- - - - Cotrannsport
        
        A) two modules goes the same directions
        
        B) two modules goes different two ways
      - Bulk Transport
        
        Exocytosis( exist the cell)
        
        Endocytosis(brings inside)
        
        Receptor Medicated: only binds to the receptor (helping to grabs the module)
        
        pinocytosis(cellular drinking)
        
        Phagocytosis(cellular eating)
      - Pump Na/K
        
        prevents the cell to reach equilibrium
- - - - Chloroplasts store energy and sugar
      - rectangle
      - chloroplasts for photosynthesis
      - one large vacuole
      - cell wall for support
      - no lysosomes
    - - nucleus
      - ribosomes
      - mitochondria
      - cytoplasm
      - cell membrane
      - ER
      - vacuoles
    - - Mitochondria release energy stored in food
      - Several small vacuoles
      - more round
      - lysosomes
  - - - Structure:Thick, hollow tubes, Made from the protein tubulin(Built in FREE Ribosomes),Straight & rigid
        
        Function:Vesicle & Organelle movement(motor protein train), Cell division(mitosis,2centrisomes)
    - - structure: plasam membranse of neighboring cells are tightly pressed together, bound by specific proteins.
      - function: establishes barrier that prevents substances from passing
    - - structure: large, contains 2 membranes
        
        function: photosynthesis- convert solar energy to chemical energy
    - - structure: cylinder shoe formed by combined microtubles
        function: help divide DNA during cell divisions and also form cilia and flagella
    - - structure: outer and inner consisting of many folds, called cristae which increase surface area, second largest organelle
        
        function: release the stored energy in food; all of your energy is supplied by the mitochondria; powerhouse of the cell
    - - function:polymers of action
      - structure: Hollow tubes consisting of polymers of tubulin molecules
    - - structure: fibrous proteins
      - function: maintain cell shape, support cell membrane
    - - structure : inside nucleus, long threadlike structures made of DNA and protein complexes called chromatin
        function: contains the genes
    - - structure: storage, animal- small, plant- large
        
        function: storage of molecules
    - - function: "anchoring junctions"
      - structure: intermediate filaments made of keratin proteins anchor desmosomes to cytoplasm
    - - function: provide channels for adjacent cells
      - structure: allows small molecules to pass (ions, sugars, amino acids, cytosol)
    - - function: chromosomes in a cell that is not actively dividing/reproducing; less tightly coiled
      - structure: consisting of DNA, RNA, and various proteins,
    - - structure : made up of glycoproteins and other carbohydrate-containing molecules secreted by the cells.
      - function: leadinging to changes in the set of proteins being made by cell.
    - - function: area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
      - structure: region of the chromosome where the two sister chromatids are held together and which the side of attachment of chromosome to spindle fibers during mitosis
    - - structure: small sacs that contain many digestive enzymes
        
        function: digest and recycle the cells used components through phagocytosis; phago- to eat
    - - structure: in nucleus; most visible structure, sometimes more than two per cell
        function: contains RNA, proteins and makes ribosomes
    - - structure: contains enzymes; located near nucleus and smooth ER; stacked flattened sacs
        
        function: packaging plant; modifies, stores, sorts and distributes molecules around cell
    - - structure: one of two identical pairs of a chromosome
      - function: two exact copies of DNA that make up each chromosome
    - - Rough ER
        
        structure: complex system of membranes with ribosomes attached; series of changes
        
        function: transports materials
      - Smooth ER
        
        structure: system of membranes that are continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
        
        function: no ribosomes attached; form vesicles; that carry proteins lipids etc. to the golgi cell membrane; lysosome
    - - function: Involved in cell control and reproduction.
      - Structure: It is non-compartmentalized and contains a single, long, continuous, circular thread of DNA
    - - -Can roam freely or bound to endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope
        -Made of ribosomal RNAs and proteins
        -Not membrane bounded (not considered organelles)
        Functions: Protein Synthesis: insertion into membranes/ packaging
        -Cytosol Ribosomes can make enzymes to start the breaking down process sugars
        -Cells that need a lot of proteins need a lot of ribosomes
    - - Structure: Large and round, Towards the middle of a cell, Surrounded by a membrane with tiny holes
        Function: Controls all activities of the cell (Ex: Eating, Breeding, Movement), The "brain" of the cell, Stores all information a cell needs
    - - structure: outside cell membrane, made of cellulose, structural carbohydrate, contain tiny holes
        
        function: protect and gives cells shape; animals don't have one so they can move
    - - structure: small spherical shape; contain enzymes
        
        function: produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxic compound that can be produced during metabolism