Language
The Nature of Language
The Power of Language
Troublesome Language
Gender and Language
Language - a collection of symbols, governed by rules and used to convey messages between individuals
Dialect - a version of the same language that includes substantially different words and meanings
English includes dozens of dialects.
Language is Symbolic
Meanings are in People, Not Words
Language are arbitrary constructions that represent a communicator's thoughts.
The place to look for meaning in language isn't in the words themselves but rather the way people make sense of them.
These representations/symbols are the way we experience the world.
Denotative Meanings - formally recognized definitions for words, as in found in the dictionary
Connotative Meanings - informal, implied interpretation for words and phrases that reflect the people, culture, emotions, and situations involved
The meaning people associate with words (connotative) have far more significance than do their denotative meanings.
Successful communication occurs when we negotiate the meaning of a statement.
"The spoken word belongs half to the one who spoke it and half to the one who hears."
Language is Rule Governed
Phonological Rules - linguistic rules governing how sounds are combined to form words
"The words champagne, double, and occasion are spelled identically in French and English, but are all pronounced differently."
Syntactic Rules - rules that govern the ways in which symbols can be arranged as opposed to the meanings of those symbols
"Correct English syntax requires that every word contain at least one vowel and prohibits sentences such as "Have you the cookies bought?," which is a perfectly acceptable word order in German."
Semantic Rules - rules that govern the meaning of language as opposed to its structure
Pragmatic Rules - rules that govern how people use language in everyday interaction
"Are two people kidding around or being serious?"
"Are they complimenting each other or trading insults?"
Reappropriation - the process by which members of a marginalized group reframe the meaning of a term that has historically been used in a derogatory way
"queer"
"the n-word"
Language Shapes Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs
Naming
Names shape the way others think of us, the way we view ourselves, and the way we act.
Credibility
The style of speech (and the credibility associated with it) influences perception.
Status
Several factors combine to create positive or negative impressions of status.
Accent
Choice of words
Speech Rate
Age
Worldview
Linguistic Relativism - the notion that language influences the way we experience the world
Sexism and Racism
Gender-orientated language can influence how we perceive entire groups of people.
"Children exposed to words such as fireman and businessman are typically less likely than other children to think that women can pursue those occupations."
Language has been used throughout history to stigmatize groups that other people disapproved of.
Nazi Germany - Jewish people became vermin
United States - African Americans became "niggers" and chattel
Vietnam War - Vietnamese became "gooks"
Language Reflects Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs
Power
The amount of "power" a speaker uses in language can reflect others' perceptions of them.
"Powerless" speech is uncertain, hesitant, intensely emotional, deferential, or nonassertive.
"Powerful" speech is clear, assertive, direct.
Affiliation
Language can be a way of demonstrating solidarity or difference with others.
Convergence - accommodating one's speaking style to another person, usually a person who is desirable or has higher status
Divergence - a linguistic strategy in which speakers emphasize differences between their communicative style and that of others to create distance
Linguistic Intergroup Bias - the tendency to label people and behaviors in terms that reflect their in-group or out-group status
A physician or attorney might use professional jargon to establish credibility
Employees who seek advancement tend to speak more like their supervisors
In-group: "John cheated in the game."
Out-group: "John is a cheater."
Attraction and Interest
The language people use can suggest a degree of interest and attraction towards a person/object/idea.
Demonstrative Pronoun Choice
"[These] people need our help." (positive)
"[Those] people need our help." (less positive)
Negation
"It's [good]." (positive)
"It's [not bad]." (less positive)
Sequential Placement
"Dick and Jane" (Dick is more important)
"Jane and Dick" (Jane is more important)
Responsibility
Language can reveal a speaker's willingness to accept responsibility for a message.
"It" VS. "I" statements
"You" VS. "I" statements
"But" statements
Questions versus statements
"[It's] not finished." (less responsible)
"[I] didn't finish it." (more responsible)
"Sometimes [you] make me angry" (less responsible)
"Sometimes [I] get angry when you do that" (more responsible)
"It's a good idea, [but] it won't work." (but cancels previous statement)
"Do [you] think we ought to do that[?]" (less responsible)
"[I] don't think we ought to do that [.]" (more responsible)
The Language of Misunderstandings
Equivocal Language
Equivocal Words - words that have more than one dictionary definition
"A nurse once told a patient that he 'wouldn't be needing' the materials he requested from home. He interpreted the statement to mean that he was near death, when the nurse meant he would be going home soon."
Period (punctuation); Period (menstrual cycle)
Relative Words
Relative Words - words that gain their meaning by comparison
fast and slow
smart and stupid
short and long
"I'll call you soon."
There was a lot of people.
Slang and Jargon
Slang - language used by a group of people whose members belong to a similar coculture or other group
Jargon - specialized vocabulary used as a kind of shorthand by people with common backgrounds and experience
[East End of London] "I haven't a scooby."
[Skateboarders/Snowboarders] "ollie, grind, shove it"
[Texting in Thai] "555" (pronounced: 'hahaha')
[Military] "AWOL" (absent without leave)
[Internet Acronyms] tl;dr
Overly Abstract Language
Abstraction Ladder - a range of more-or-less-abstract terms describing an event or object
Abstract Language - language that lacks specificity or does not refer to observable behavior or other sensory data
Behavioral Description - an account that refers only to observable phenomena
Who is involved?
In what circumstances does the behavior occur?
What behaviors are involved?
Disruptive Language
Confusing Facts and Opinions
Factual Statement - a statement that can be verified as being true or false
Opinion Statement - a statement based on the speaker's beliefs
Confusing Facts and Inferences
Inferential Statement - a conclusion arrived from an interpretation of evidence
It rains more in Seattle than in Portland.
The climate in Portland is better than in Seattle.
It must be rainy all the time in Seattle.
Emotive Language
Emotive Language - language that conveys an attitude rather than simply offering an objective description
Evasive Language
Euphemisms
Euphemisms - a mild or indirect or expression used in place of a more direct but less pleasant one
Toilet --> Restroom
Overweight --> Full-figured
Equivocation
Equivocation - a deliberatively vague statement that can be interpreted in more than one way
Ten True/False Statements About How Men and Women Use Language
Men and Women are opposites of each other. [False]
Women talk more than men. [False]
Men and women talk about different things. [Sometimes True]
Romance is complicated. [Undeniable]
Men and women communicate for different reasons. [Often True]
*Women are emotionally expression. [Often True]
Men don't show their feelings. [Partially True/False]
Women's speech is typically powerless, and men's is more powerful. [False]
Men and women are hardwired to communicate differently. [Partly True]
Men and women are socialized to communicate different. [True]
I find my name (Birdy) to be sort of cutesy and innocent, so I sometimes adopt a more brighter, talkative, jumpy personality.
I admit to using equivocation to avoid lying or saying the direct truth when talking to some people.
What surprised you in the readings?
I was, not exactly surprised, but mildly amused and little satisfied to read that marginalized groups were able to reappropriate and turn
the derogatory language used against them into a symbol of their solidarity.
What confused you or made you want to find out more?
I want to know more about how influential people and the media use troublesome language, especially evasive and disruptive language, to get away with making flawed arguments.
What bothered you?
It bothered me to read that language was a very accessible mean to stigmatize and discriminate certain groups throughout history.
Cats are lovable creatures (I'm a cat person).
"All whites are bigots" (Stereotyping)