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Chapter 21: Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism 1815-1850 - Coggle…
Chapter 21: Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism 1815-1850
The Conservative Order
Napoleon defeat = desire to contain revolution w/ old order
Peace settlement created at
Congress of Vienna
Restored Bourbon monarchy (Louis XVIII)
Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia (Quadruple Alliance) still united after Napoleon was defeated
Led by
Klemens von Metternich
Guided by
principle of legitimacy
(need to restore legitimate monarchs and traditional institutions)
Rearranged territory =
balance of power
(no country could dominate)
Created barriers so French couldn't expand or France and Russia couldn't be conquered
Created German Confederation
Punished French for loyalty to Napoleon (borders pushed back, payed indemnity, army of occupation)
Ideology
of Conservatism started by peace arrangements of 1815
Edmund Burke and Conservatism -
he wrote a book saying society was a contract; against violent overthrow of gov. by revolution (evolutionary improvements)
Joseph de Maistre and Conservatism -
authoritarian conservatism, wanted hereditary monarchy, absolute monarchy = order/no revolution
All Conservatives - obedience to political authority, organized religion = social order, no revolutions, liberties, representative gov., and nationalism, community not individual rights, ordered society, tradition
Fear of revolution and war =
Concert of Europe
(meeting w/ Quadruple Alliance)
France added to Quadruple Alliance
At Troppau Metternich established
principle of intervention
(great powers of Europe could send armies to countries w/ revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs)
Britain refused - Quadruple Alliance never had the intention to interfere w/ other states' internal affairs
Austria, Prussia, and Russia met and sent Austrian troops to Naples
Concert of Europe broke down when British rejected principle of intervention
Napoleon weakened Spain and Portugal =
Latin America Revolts
Enlightenment + new political ideals inspired Creole elites
Latin America controlled by Spanish and Portuguese
Central America became independent and formed republics
Spanish attempted to gain control = Britain and U.S. intervened
U.S. acted alone and established
Monroe Doctrine
Britain protected w/ naval ships
Foreign domination of Latin American economy
Nationalism (allowed to keep language and faith) =
Greek Revolt
(Greeks vs. Ottoman Turkish masters)
Britain, France, and Russia got involved = won and declared Greece an independent kingdom w/ new royalty
Only successful revolt (still conservative domination in Europe)
Conservative Domination
Conservative gov. worked to maintain old order
Britain governed by aristocratic landowning classes in both houses of Parliament
Britain's Tories and Whigs
: political factions in Parliament
Whigs- supported by industrial middle class
Tories - didn't want to change existing political and electoral system
Falling agricultural prices = Tories'
Corn Laws
(high tariffs on foreign grain, benefitting landowners while working class suffered)
Peterloo Massacre
(cavalry attack) = gov. restricted public meetings and spreading pamphlets among poor
Louis VIII
(Bourbon family) claimed throne
Accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (equality before law), property rights, bicameral legislature
Ultraroyalists
wanted more revolutionary reforms, didn't like king's compromise and Napoleonic features in his rule (wanted monarchy dominated by landed aristocracy w/ Catholic Church influence)
Louis VIII died =
Charles X
took throne = indemnity to aristocrats w/ confiscated land, Catholic Church controlled education
Public outrage =
ministerial responsibility
(minister of king responsible to legislature)
Violated = protest and almost revolution
Italian states had reactionary gov. (no liberalism or nationalism)
Carbonari
: secret societies w/ nationalistic dreams planned for revolution
In Spain, Ferdinand VII reneged promises, dissolved parliamentary assembly, and persecuted revolters (backed up by principle of intervention)
Germanic Confederation
: 38 sovereign states in what had been HRE (minus Austria and Prussia)
Powerless, but Metternich used them to repress revolutionary movements in German states
Germans who favored liberal principles and unity led by Prussia, but Napoleon defeats Prussia
Frederick William III reformed = reactionary, but still was absolutist w/o unity and legislative assembly or representative gov.
Burschenschaften
: student societies for free, united Germany (closed by Metternich - censorship of press and universities supervised and controlled)
Became conservative again
Multinational Austria governed by Germans (held together by dynasty, imperial civil service, imperial army, and Catholic Church)
Hungarians wanted self-gov. = tried to break empire (failed b/c Metternich)
Russia autocratic, agricultural w/ tsar as divine-right monarch
Relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, reformed education but didn't grant constitution or free serfs
Napoleon defeated = Alexander reactionary
Opposed by secret societies b/c of alienation through censorship and academic freedom
Alexander died =
Tsar Nicholas I
=
Decembrist Revolt
(Northern Union unrest)
Revolt = Nicholas conservative → reactionary
Fear of revolution = secret police
Ideologies of Change
Liberalism
: people should be as free from restraint as possible (product of American, French, and Industrial Revolution)
Classical economics
: economic liberalism focused on
laissez-faire
Gov. purpose to defend country, police protection of individuals, and construct and maintain public works
Individual economic liberty = welfare of society
Thomas Malthus
argued that gov. should interfere in economics b/c unchecked pop. increases when food supply increases slowly
Result is overpopulation and starvation if growth not in check
Misery and poverty inevitable
David Ricardo's "iron law of wages"
: increase in pop. = more workers = wages fall = misery and starvation = lower pop.
Workers decline = wages rise = want larger families = cycle repeated
Raising wages is pointless
Liberals believed in protection of civil liberties in written document (ex: American Bill of Rights or French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen)
Separation of church and state, representative assembly, constitutional monarchy or state, limited gov. powers, ministerial responsibility, limited suffrage
Tied to industrial middle-class men favored voting rights to share power w/ landowning classes
Liberals NOT democrats
John Stuart Mill
wanted "absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects" (protected from gov. censorship and tyranny)
On the Subjection of Women
: supported women's rights
Awareness of being part of community w/ institutions, traditions, language, and customs = nationalism
Started in French Revolution (each nationality should have own gov.)
Germans wanted one central gov., subject peoples wanted self-gov. not be subject to German minority in multinational empire
Threatened political order b/c most states multinational
Nationalism and liberalism were allies (liberty only if people rule themselves, obtain own state = linked together)
Socialism: human cooperation better than competition
Marxists realized it was impractical and called it
utopian socialism
No private property and no competitive spirit = better human environment
Charles Fourier's phalansteries
: small model communities of self-contained, communally housed individuals who worked for mutual benefit
Robert Owen's New Lanark
: turned factory town to healthy community
Cooperative environment = true natural goodness
Another community failed in U.S.
Louis Blanc
: social problems can be solved by gov. help, competition = economic evils
Instead workshops w/ goods sold publicly financed by state operated by workers
Females supported utopian socialists
Flora Tristan
wanted liberation of women, absolute equality = free working class and transform civilization
Established phalansteries for same education, job opportunities, and living responsibilities
Overshadowed by nationalism and liberalism
Revolution and Reform
Charles X set edicts (censorship on press, dissolved legislative assembly, and reduced electorate participation in elections) =
France's July Revolution of 1830
Louis-Philippe became constitutional king (favored bourgeoisie)
Parties of Movement and Resistance
: opinions about bourgeois monarchy's direction
Movement: ministral reponsibility, foregin politcy, limited expansion of franchise
Resistance: France's gov. is perfect
Belgium became independent (fueled by nationalism and liberalism), Poland controlled by Russian military, Metternich crushed Italian revolts
Whigs came into power in Britain, industrial leaders objected to Britain's corrupt electoral system (excluded from political power)
Reform Act of 1832
gave industrial urban communities voice in gov., benefitted upper middle class, lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers (who couldn't vote)
Aristocratic landowning class improved working conditions in factories and mines
Supported economic liberalism
Poor Law Act: aid to poor and unemployed = laziness and more paupers
Anti-Corn Law League: lowered bread prices (repealed)
Revolutions of 1848
: industrial and agricultural depression = hardship for lower middle class, workers, and peasants
France: Louis Philippe refused to make changes = political banquets
Created new national workshops = split btwn radical republicans (Parisian working class) and moderate republicans (most of France)
Moderates closed workshops after losing money = working class revolt
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won = Emperor Napoleon
France's Second Republic
: unicameral legislature and president elected by universal male suffrage
Germany: rulers made promises for reform =
Frankfurt Assembly
Argued over Big Germany and Small Germany
Frederick William IV refused assembly's offer of "emperor of Germans" = told delegates to disband
Assembly didn't have the means to compel rulers to accept their constitution
Austria: Hungarian liberals (under
Louis Kossuth
wanted to be independent country = wanted own legislature
Conservatives played on middle-class fear on working-class revolutions
Autocratic gov. restored after failure of liberals - emperor and propertied class controlled
Italian States: revolutionary uprisings failed = unifications taken in a new direction
Risorgimento
passed down to
Giuseppe Mazzini
(nationalist founder of
Young Italy
)
War of liberation from Austrian domination for liberal constitution
Failures: began w/ unity of revolutionaries, but division = failure
Except in France, suffrage not for working class (radicals push for universal male suffrage, liberals pull back) = old govs.
Division among nationalities (minorities fought each other)
Mature United States: U.S. Constitution = liberalism and nationalism
Individual states challenged constitutional commitment to national unity (Federalists vs. Republicans)
Federalists: strong financial program = central gov.
Republicans: feared centralization and popular liberties
Supremacy of national gov. established, universal male suffrage, improvement of human beings
Romanticism
Used reason through intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination to know
Writers used emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings
Goethe's
The Sorrows of the Young Werther
: tragic stories of male lovers of young maidens who were killed by disease
Individualism
: unique traits of each person
Rebelled against middle-class conventions
Idea of hero - solitary genius who defied the world and sacrificed his life, transforming society
Grimm brothers and and Hans Christian Andersen
published local fairy tales (interested in past)
Neo-Gothic architecture
revived = fake medieval castles and cities w/ cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and railway stations
Gothic literature
: literature about bizarre and unusual = pursued by dreams, nightmares, frenzies, depression, or drug use
Mary Shelley's
Frankenstein
: mad scientist creates humanlike monster that goes crazy (danger of science when it tried to conquer nature)
Sir Walter Scott
wrote about clash btwn knights in medieval England
Poets could reveal invisible world to others (drama and colorful)
Brought love of nature
William Wordsworth
said nature was mystical, mysterious, mirror into humans (could learn about themselves), alive and sacred
Pantheism
: worship of nature (nature with God)
Criticized mechanistic materialism of science b/c it made nature an object of study
Wordsworth said math left no room for imagination or human soul
Percy Bysshe Shelley
wrote about revolt of human beings against laws and customs that oppressed them
Lord Byron
dramatized himself as a melancholy hero
Believed industrialization = people alienated from inner selves and natural world
Romantic art reflected inner feelings (vision of world and imagination), rejected Classicism (instead warm, emotion, movement)
Caspar David Friedrich
: nature = mysterious and mystical (manifestation of divine), inner vision
J.M.W. Turner
didn't idealize nature or have realistic accuracy, instead painted moods to show natural effects (like Impressionism)
Eugene Delacroix
: loved color and exotic, theatricality and movement, "feast to the eye"
Romantic Music awakens emotions (including Classicism ideas)
Ludwig von Beethoven
: inspired by revolution, wrote to express, classical influences (Mozart, Haydn)
Romanticism: uncontrolled rhythms = struggle and uplifted resolutions
Hector Berlioz
founded program music (moods and sound effects of instruments = actions and emotions)
Revival of Christianity (elite lost interest in Catholicism during Enlightenment → Catholicism spread after restoration of nobility)
Romantics supported Catholicism (
Chateaubriand's
Genius of Christianity
: harmony of all things, feelings of divinity)
Awakening of Protestantism was emotional experience (spread evangelical messages)
Emergence of an Ordered Society
People move from countryside to cities = horrible living conditions, poverty, unemployment, and social dissatisfaction
Crime = middle-class saw poor as threat to security and possessions = police
New Police Forces = disciplined, ordered society
Could prevent crime
Serjents
: first police, easily recognized, lightly armed = civilian, not military
Britain: feared power of military or police = unpaid constables (incapable of keeping order) →
bobbies
Demand for better pay and treatment = better working conditions = more proffessional
Schutzmannschaft
: financed police, civilian body → military lines (political purposes), weaponry
Thought poverty = crime
Laziness = middle-class believed unemployment → states passed poor laws to force paupers to find work or go to workhouses
Thought moral degeneracy of low classes = poverty
Formed institutes to instruct working classes in applied sciences = productive members of society (ex:
London Mechanics' Institute
)
Organized religion set up Sunday schools for morals of working children, nurseries for orphans/homeless children, women's societies to care for sick and poor, prison societies to prepare women for prison work, revived Catholic religious order = good morals
Prison Reform: increase in crime = more arrests
Capital punishment for property crime was ineffective = imprisonment
British stopped shipping ppl to Australia for serious crimes
Prisons = isolated criminals from society
Questioned purpose and effectiveness = sent missions to U.S. to examine different prison systems
Prisoners kept separated in individual cells (solitary confinement) = greater remorse