Ecology of the Family
Structures
matriarchal family: mother has formal authority and dominance
patriarchal family: father has formal authority and dominance
egalitarian family: both sides of extended family are regarded as equal
nuclear family: husband, wife, and children
family of orientation: family born into
family of procreation: result of marriage and children
Functions
Reproduction
Socialization/Education
Assignment of Roles: jobs and distribution of authority in a family (subject to change as needed)
Authority Patterns
Economic Support
Nurturance/Emotional Support
Changes
Divorce
possible role changes
Socioeconomic change
less emotional support between spouses/children
children feel divided loyalties, forces beyond their control
children show behavioral changes
boys have a harder time adjusting than girls
possible future relational issues for children
Custody Arrangements
Single-Parent
emotional and economic stress
role overload
Joint
binuclear family: children are part of two homes and two family groups
children who experience joint custody seem to adjust better
school-age children experience anxiety over schedules
school-age children experience attachment issues with friends because of location issues
Stepfamilies
Kin
relatives related by blood or adoption
most common is grandparents raising children
abuse, teen pregnancy, neglect, incarceration are reasons for this custody
caretakers develop emotional stress and grief
children struggle to develop attachment or sense of belonging
becoming a normal familial unit as time continues
step-parents have no legal rights to children of spouse unless legally adopted
impact of remarriage is only second to the crisis of divorce for children
stepfamily relationships don't have time to evolve, they are instant and therefore, there are conflicts
children experience most of the burden as they have to adapt the most
role confusion and poor family cohesion lasts for about 2 years or longer
behavior problems arise when both parents bring children into a new family
divorce rate of remarriages is 60%
Adoption
encouraged to tell child about reasons for adoption as soon as parent sees fit to help the child understand it was a positive experience and they are wanted
child's interpretation of adoption changes over time
During adolescence adopted children face issues
telling friends
contacting birth parents
finding relevant medical history
loyalty
trans-racial adoptions suffer the most (lack of identity, grief for what could have been)
Dual-Earners
could increase father's involvement at home but they mostly take on stereotypical male chores
anxiety over children-related duties as time for both parents decrease
maternal work improves economic situation
helps create closer bonds between father and children
increased responsibility for child
child adjustment is similar between mothers who work after the child's first year of life and those who stayed home
mothers who are more fulfilled by working are better mothers to their children than those who stay at home and are not fulfilled
Diversity
Unmarried Parents
differing interactions with the community
less legal rights (cohabiting partner)
research shows higher poverty rates among unwed parents
lack of legality puts child safety at risk
Interethnic & Interfaith Parents
interethnic faces more prejudice
culture contrasts could affect socialization of children
typically have higher levels of tolerance for diversity than other families
children develop an overlapping self-identity between two races (most is constituted by the environment they are raised in)
Same-Sex Parents
typically lesbians with biological/adopted children or gays with biological or adopted children
issues within are similar to those with divorced parents or custodial arrangements
if a couple is not legally married, the biological parent is the one who is legally allowed to sign and consent for the child
RESEARCH SAYS THAT THERE ARE NO HIGHER RATES OF HOMOSEXUALITY, SEXUAL ABUSE, OR PSYCHOLOGICAL DAMAGE THAN HETEROSEXUAL PARENTS FOR CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUAL COUPLES
issues that arise with children at adolescence regarding sexuality can be magnified due to the level of acceptance in the community and those around them
Macrosystem Influences
Socioeconomic Status: rank within society based on social and economic factors
ascribed status: social class determined by family, gender, birth order, skin color
achieved status: social class determined by education, income, or residence
Social Class
Upper Class
carries family name
maximum cost of child rearing
care-takers act as extra socialization factor
Middle Class
most likely to use reasoning and non-physical forms of discipline
taught to look forward to the future
exposed to different language and cognitive experiences than lower class
middle class families think in abstract and complex ways
Lower Class
typically slower learners and more aggressive
differences are more visible in adolescence
birth defects are higher due to lack of health care
more dominant and aggressive parenting
Under Class
the contradiction to the concept that social mobility is available to anyone in America who is willing to work for it
most exposed to drugs, AIDS, child abuse, homelessness, crime, and government dependence
programs like TANF are significant in the developmental outcomes for underclass and lower-class children
Social Class Socialization Theories
Social Selection Model
individual characteristics of parents, based on genes, personality dispositions, and physical traits, will predict their degree of achievement in terms of education, occupation, and income
Social Causation Model
Family Stress Model
economic difficulties have an adverse effect on parents' emotions, behaviors, and relationships, which in turn negatively influence their socialization strategies
Extended Investment Model
resources possessed by families of higher socioeconomic statuses increase the tendency and ability of parents to promote the well-being and abilities of their children
Ethnic Orientation
Gemeinschaft Groups: communal, cooperative, close, intimate, and informal interpersonal relationships
Gesellschaft Groups: associative, practical, objective, and formal interpersonal relationships
Orientation and Socialization Differences
How do humans relate to each other?
What is the significant time dimension?
What is the valued personality type?
What is the relationship of humans to nature?
What are the innate predispositions of humans?
Religious Orientation
Divine Ideology: enables individuals to comprehend events that happen to them
Coping Mechanisms: help individuals accept and cope with crises without overwhelming psychological costs
Concept of Death: provides structure to life and can give hope of a blissful immortality, making the loved one's death more tolerable or one's own death less terrifying
Establishment of Identity: gives meaning to life
Chronosystem Influences
Political
Immigration Policies
fastest growing segment of U.S. population
experience things that compromise their ability to succeed in American society
parents lose authority because children have to translate from English into native tongue
typically have higher motivations for education, occupation, economic mobility
Foreign Policies
deployed parent increases substance abuse probability
children who lose a loved one react with emotional detachment or regressive behavior
terrorism affects travel rules, communication procedures, and racial profiling
families with ethnic backgrounds similar terrorists are subjected to more searching and interrogation
children are ostracized or treated cruelly
Domestic Policies
law changes decrease government financial assistance
Aid to Families of Dependent Children program repealed led to more responsibility for both parents to support children
increased emphasis on two-parent families and no childbearing outside marriage
Economic
both parents working may lead to family fragmentation
higher levels of stress in children because of scheduling
jobs may not line up if one parent gets transferred and one doesn't
Technological
improvements lead to overall increase of living standards
increased family busyness
digital tech leads to new kinds of communication
marketing to children is a new branch of socialization
Empowerment
the way the family system adapts to change affects the relationships within
coping can be assed by a few factors including: how they solve problems, how they communicate, how they adapt to change, social supports, spiritual beliefs, self-esteem, personal adjustment, absence of pathology, deviance, or drug use
resiliency is related to behaviors such as: display of love and acceptance, communicativeness, cohesiveness, communication of values and standards, ability to cope effectively with problems
GIVING FAMILIES ACCESS TO KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS THAT ENHANCE THEIR ABILITY TO INFLUENCE THEIR PERSONAL LIVES AND THE COMMUNITY IN WHICH THEY LIVE IS THE FIRST STEP TOWARD BECOMING RESILIENT TO STRESS