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Ch 6 & 7 (Microscopy & Biochemistry (Light Microscope: visible…

- - - - creates a much sharper image
    - - eliminates out of focus light from a thick sample
    - - molecules absorb radiation and emit light
    - - orptical modifications are uned to enhance densities
      - appears 3D
    - - good unpigmented cells
      - useful for living cells
    - - unstained: not as contrasted
      - stained: helps enhance contrast
  - - - beam excites electrons and copies down the pattern
      - used for detailed study of topography of a specimen
    - - mainly used to see the internal structure of a cell
    - - resolution is irreversibly related to wavelength of light
  - - - enhanced by staining
- - - - nonpolar
      - some only extend part way
    - - loosely bound on surface
    - - reactants bind/ active site
      - built into membrane
    - - receptor with a specific shape
    - - Glycoproteins serving as identification tags, binds cells together
      - short lived
      - carbohydrates that stretch off protein act as a tag and are made recognizable
      - glycolipids
    - - other membrane proteins hook together
      - tight and gap junctions
    - - 1 protein providing hydrophilic side
      - other is shuttling substance across using ATP by changing its shape
    - - proteins are noncovalently bound to microfilaments and cytoskeleton
      - maintains shape/ stabilizes protein
  - - - unsaturated remain more fluid because of the kinks in tails
      - saturated tails tend to solidify and increases viscosity
      - Cholesterol
        
        at lower temps it interferes with it solidifying increasing fluidity
        
        reduces fluidity at normal temperatures restraining movement
        
        "fluidity buffer" restricting changes as temp changes
- - - - rRNA is synthesized to assemble ribosome synthesis
    - - perforated with nuclear pores:
        
        pore complex:lines each pore and regulates what goes in and out
      - Nuclear Lamina:net like array of intermediate filaments maintains shape of nucleus by supporting the nuclear envelope
  - - - Smooth ER
        
        Functions
        
        metabolism of carbohydrates
        
        lipid synthesis
        
        oils/steroids/phospholipids
        
        detoxification of drugs/poisons
        
        Calcium ion storage
      - Rough ER; bound ribosomes
        
        help secrete proteins made by bound ribosomes
        
        Glycoproteins:proteins with carbohydrates contently bonded to them
        
        some proteins are synthesized
        
        transitional ER: secretory proteins depart from ER wrapped in membrane = vesicles
        
        transport vesicles: transit from one part of cell to another
        
        membrane factory; adding phospholipids & proteins to own membrane
    - - specialized in cells the have high secretion
      - Cisternae; flattened sac; similar to pita bread
      - membrane separates from cytosol
      - 2 side
        
        Cis-face: located near ER trans, accept and move materials through golgi
        
        Trans-face: pinches off vesicles to transport
        
        transport vesicles
        
        lysosomes
        
        vacuoles
      - products from the ER are modified from cis to trans side
      - identification tags like phosphate groups can be added to transportation to target specific parts
    - - membranous sacs of hydrolytic enzymes used to digest macromolecules
      - work best in acidic environments
      - Enzymes, and membrane made in Rough ER and transferred to golgi
      - Phagocytosis: engulfs food vacuole and digest substance
      - Autophagy:lysosomes fuses with vesicles with damaged organelles
        
        recycle materials in cell
  - - - contains cell sap inside
      - main respiratory of inorganic ions
      - growth of plants without new cytoplasm
      - enlarges by absorbing water
    - - maintains stable concentrations of ions
      - many protist contain this
      - in plants/fungi they carry out enzymatic hydrolysis like lysomsomes
- - - - Changed shape increases agginity for K+
      - Na+ binding stimulates Phosphorylation by APT, and changes the shape of protein
      - K+ binds to protein on extracellular side triggering the release of P
      - Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to Na/K pump which has a high affinity for Na+
      - the loss of P changes the shape back to original, increasing affinity for Na+
      - Exchanges 3 Na+ for 2 K+
  - - - favors cations in
      - anions out of cell
    - - electrochemical gradient: combination of forces acting on ion
      - chemical force: concatenation gradient & electrical force
- - - - Myosin in muscle; contraction
      - amoebic movement by extending pseudopodium
      - cytoplasmic streaming
  - - - alpha
      - beta
    - - Cilia
        
        usually multiple
        
        alternating power strokes
        
        nonmotile have a 9+0 shape
      - Flagella
        
        usually 1 or a few
        
        snake like movement
      - 9 doubts of microtublues in a ring with 2 single ones in the middle = 9+2
      - basal body:anchors
        
        similar to centriole with triplets shape 9+0
      - Dyneins:motor proteins that bend and attached to the outer mirotubules doublet
        
        2 feet that walk along microtubule using ATP
        
        1 foot maintains contact the whole time
    - - Centrioles:in centrosome as a pair
        
        9 sets of triplets of microtubules in a ring
        
        help organize assembly
  - - - forms nuclear lamina
- - - - animal burst/swell= lysed
      - plant, turgid: healthy state, water enters and helps it stands up
    - - plant, it will plasmolyze, and water will flow out of the cell and separate from cell wall and shrink and shrivel up
      - animal, shrink up= crenate
    - - animal, net flow
      - plant, flaccid; becomes limp, water doesn't flow out
  - - - gated channels:open and close as repose to stimuli
- - - - Mitochondrial Matrix:enclosed by inner membrane contains free ribosoms, DNA, and enzymes
      - Intermembrane space: space between inner and outer membranes
      - Cristae: infoldings in the inner membrane
        
        helps give more room fro cellular respiration
  - - - convert solar energy to chemical energy
      - using sunlight as energy and synthesizing H2O and CO2
    - - intermembrane space
    - - Thylakoids:flattened interconnected sacs
        
        Granum:stack of thylakoids
      - Stroma: fluid outside the thylakoids
        
        DNA
        
        enzymes
        
        free ribosomes
  - - - circular DNA
      - contain ribosomes
      - autonomous: somewhat independent
    - - engulfed cell formed a relationship with host cell= endosymbiont
      - within time cells merged into 1 cell
- - - - Aquaporins; allows water to pass at a greater amount
- - - - contains nucleiod; region that has genetic material
      - cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane
    - - The DNA is in a nucleus membrane bound (double)
      - membrane bound organelles
      - cytoplasm is region between nucleus and plasma membrane
      - usually bigger
      - compartmentalize
  - - - extracellular side with proteins and carbohydrates
      - hydrophobic region
      - hydropholic cytoplasm region
- - - - Secondary Cell Wall:thin layer of sticky polysaccharide proteins
        
        between plasma membrane and 1st wall
        
        helps protect with durable durable matrix
      - Primary Cell Wall:young plant 1st secrets thin wall
  - - - Collagen is most abundant glycoprotein
      - Proteoglycans:consist of proteoglycan molecules attached noncovelntly to a polysaccharide chain
        
        secreted by cells
      - Fibronectin:Cells attached to EMC to intergrins embedded in membrane
      - Intergrins:built into plasma membrane
        
        bound to cytoplasmic side, and microfilaments
        
        passes signals back and forth from outside in
  - - - Plasmodesmata:cell walls a re perforated allowing passage of cytoplasm/nutrients/ions/etc.
    - - Desmosomes:anchors, function like rivets fastening cells together in strong sheets
        
        attach muscle cells to each other
        
        intermediate filaments anchor
      - Gap Junctions:provides channels in plasma membrane allowing communication between cells
      - Tight Junctions:plasma membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together tightly
        
        continuous seals
        
        water tight
- - - - Pits: surrounding cell with a fuzzy protein coat
    - - Type of pinocytosis
      - Human cells have receptor endocytosis that takes in cholesterol for membrane synthesis and synthesis of other steroids.