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BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES (PROTEINS (functions (act as enzymes, structure,…

- - - - amino acids are the basic unit of proteins
      - polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides
      - monomers are amino acids
    - - the r-group is the variant and a functional groups that heavily influences the properties and functions of the protein
      - the carboxyl group of one amino acid forms a peptide bond with the amino of another through dehydration synthesis
        
        when 2 - 50 amino acids are joined, you have a peptide
        
        when 50 or MORE amino acids are joined, a polypeptide or protein is made
    - - these connections cause proteins to bend or fold
      - they are formed between cysteines and contain sulfur that forms bonds with other sulfur molecules
    - - amino acids must be in the proper sequences in order to be in the correct place in a protein and depend on a precise 3D shape to do their job
    - - caused by temperature changes
      - caused by pH changes
      - caused by salinity changes
  - - - ALPHA - helix structure
      - BETA - pleated structure
    - - most important protein
      - reactions would be much slower without them and evolution would not have gone at the speed that it did!
      - reusable
      - not used up in reaction
      - each reaction in a biochemical pathway may require a different, specific enzyme
      - lowers the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur which is the amount of energy needed to start a reaction and make a place where molecules can meet
      - coenzymes work with enzymes to transfer electrons, atoms, or molecules
        
        vitamins are needed to produced coenzymes
- - - - contain twice as many calories as carbohydrates and proteins
    - - ONE DOUBLE BOND = monounsaturated / MORE THAN ONE DOUBLE BOND = polyunsaturated
  - - - all similar in structure and contain C, H, & O
      - contain fatty acid subunits which are long chains of C and H with a carboxyl groups at one end
      - most do not have ring structures
      - fats and oils are triglycerides which means they have three fatty acid subunits and one glycerol
      - most fats comes from animals, are saturated, have straight fatty acid chains, are solids at room temperature, and are stored in the liver when broken down at digestion
      - most oils come from plants seeds, are unsaturated, have bendy fatty acid chains, and are liquids at room temperature
      - hydrogenated oils (TRANS FATS) are created by breaking fatty acid double bonds and changing the shape of the molecule
        
        done from cis bonds which are straight
        
        saturated and solid at room temperature
        
        can be found in many products due to how cheap they are
        
        our bodies don't know how to deal with these molecules, so their digestion causes an increase in bad cholesterol (LDL - low density lipoproteins) and a decrease in good cholesterol (HDL - high density lipoproteins)
      - waxes are NOT a food source since most animals don't have the enzymes to break them down, they are solids at room temperature, and they are saturated
    - - similar to oils, but they have a phosphate group in place of one fatty acid chain (-H2PO4)
      - unsaturated and liquids at room temperature
      - made up of a fatty acid chain, glycerol, and phosphate
        
        one end in nonpolar because of the fatty acid chain (the "tail") and the other is polar because of the phosphate-nitrogen group (the "head") (contains oxygen!)
        
        this construction allows for cell membranes to form with the nonpolar tails facing inward, and the polar heads facing outward (nonpolar substances easily get in, polar substance don't)
    - - made up of four fused rings of carbon with different functional groups
      - unsaturated and liquids at room temperature
      - cholesterol is an important steroid
  - - - plant oils (olive oil)
      - animals fats
      - bees wax
    - - cholesterol
- - - - 5-C sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose - has one less oxygen)
      - phosphate group
      - nitrogen-containing base - adenine (two rings), guanine (two rings), cytosine (one ring) OR thymine (one ring)
    - - hydrogen bonds hold bases together!
  - - - deoxyribonucleic acid
      - responsible for storing information and the genetic instructions for the development and function of living things, such as synthesizing proteins
      - made up of 2 nucleotide chains that twist to form a “double helix”
      - found in chromosomes
      - the sequence of nucleotides is different in every species, so there is a unique code to synthesize proteins
    - - ribonucleic acid
      - copies of DNA
      - carries genetic code from nucleus to cytoplasm, so that it can be read and proteins can be synthesized
    - - adenosine monophosphate
      - intracellular messengers that carry chemical signals
    - - adenosine triphosphate
      - transports energy within cells, product of cellular respiration
      - slightly unstable covalent bonds hold the phosphate groups together
      - these bonds are unstable because the phosphate groups are negative (likes repel!)
      - breaking these bonds releases energy that is used to power reactions in living things
        
        bonds are broken by hydrolysis!
      - "energy currency"
- - - - simplest carbohydrates
      - contains hydroxyl groups and a carboxyl group
    - - two monosaccharides linked together
    - - differ in ring form!
      - long chains of sugar units
  - - - glucose
      - fructose
      - galactose
      - (glucose, fructose, and galactose are isomers which means they have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas)
    - - sucrose
      - lactose
      - maltose
    - - starch
      - glycogen
      - cellulose
        
        (we don't have the enzymes to digest cellulose)
      - chitin
      - peptidoglycan
      - glycosaminoglycans