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Chapter 2: Learning (Cognitive Learning Some forms of learning must be…

- - - - Before conditioning
        
        1) Food (UCS) = Salivation(UCR)
        2) Tone from tuning fork(NS) = No response
        UCS-UCR connection is wired in= no learning needed
      - TERMS
        
        Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that automatically trigger reflexive response
        
        Unconditioned Response (UCR): Response elicited by unconditioned stimulus w/o prior learning (UCS)
        
        Neutral Stimulus (NS): Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.
        When brought into conditioning experiment, become conditioned stimulus (CS)
        
        Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Prev NS comes to elicit conditioned response
        
        Conditioned Response (CR): Response elicited by prev NS that become associated with CS
        
        Acquisition: Initial learning stage in classical conditioning
      - During Conditioning
        (Acquisition)
        
        After several trials
        Tone(NS) + Food(UCS) = Salivation (CR)
        
        NS & UCS: Occur closely together in time
        Make association between 2 stimuli
      - After conditioning
        
        Tone(CS) = Salivation (CR)
      - Extinction:
        Weakening of CR in absence of UCS
        
        Acquisition (NS + UCS): CR strength increases rapidly -> Transform NS into CS
        
        Extinction: CR strength drops to 0
        -> UCS no longer follow CS, eliminate learned association
        
        i.e. after years of hearing bells that not immediately followed by food, wont expect mouth-watering response if hear today
      - Spontaneous Recovery
        Reappearance of extinguished CR after time delay
        
        Occurs when CR reappears aft extinction & aft period w/o exposure to CS
      - Generalization:
        Giving CR to stimuli that are similar to CS
        
        old responses in new situations
        
        Pavlov: Well-trained god salivate in response to tone of slightly diff pitch from the one used during conditioning = Generalization
        i.e. People acquire fears as result of traumatic events.
        
        Child got frightened by clown at circus = develop fear for all clowns, even circuses
        
        Got bitten by spider and painful = develop fear of spiders (not only limited to specific type, but all)
      - Discrimination:
        Responding to 1 stimuli but not to stimuli that are similar
        
        Learn to distinguish between two similar stimuli & respond to one but not the other
        
        Pavlov: Dog gradually learned to discriminate between tones > salivation elicited by one tone & not the other
        i.e. Advertising campaigns to discriminate between particular brands- Pepsi & Coke
      - Higher-order conditioning
        (Second-order conditioning)
        
        1) Can opener (CS) + Food (UCS) = Salivation (UCR)
        2) Squeaky cabinet door(Second order stimulus) + Can opener (CS) = Salivation (CR)
        Keep can open in cupboard with squeaky hinge - everytime open cupboard > signal can opener coming out
        3) Squeaky cabinet door (New/ 2nd order CS) = Salivation (CR)
- - - - 1) Trial-and-error
        Gradually discovers correct response - Attempt many behaviors + Note which ones produce desired consequences
        2) Thorndike's Law of Effect
        Responses that produced desirable results = learned
  - - - Positive Reinforcement
        
        Apply or Give
        
        Adding +ve stimulus aft response & increases prob of responses occur again
        
        Primary reinforcer: Fulfill basic biological needs/ desires
        i.e. Food and sex
        
        Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers: Stimuli that acquire reinforcing power by learned association with primary reinforcers
        i.e. Money and tokens
      - Negative Reinforcement
        
        Remove or Withdraw
        
        Removing unpleasant/ aversive stimulus, aft response & increases prob of responses occur again
        i.e. Use umbrella to avoid getting wet (remove unpleasant stimulus)
      - Contingencies
        
        Timing and frequency of reinforcement affect behavior
        
        1) Continuous Reinforcement:
        Schedule in which all correct responses reinforced
        
        Useful for shaping
        i.e. Early in learning processes
        
        2) Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement:
        Schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses reinforced
        
        Useful for extinction
        i.e. gambler gave up on slot machine that never pays off
        
        Schedule of Reinforcement
        
        Ratio Schedules
        Provide reward aft certain number of responses
        
        1) Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement aft fixed no. of responses
        i.e. Factory workers get paid aft every 10 cases of completed products
        2) Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement appear aft random no. of responses
        i.e. slot machine pay-off
        
        Interval Schedules
        Provide reward after certain time interval
        
        1) Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement appear aft certain fixed amt of time, regardless no. of responses
        i.e. Weekly/ Monthly paychecks
        2) Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement appear aft certain amt of time, but amt varies from trials to trials
        i.e. Random visits from boss who delivers praise
      - Token Economies
        
        Type of reinforcement that offers tokens for desired behavior
        
        When enough tokens earned = exchange for rewards
        
        Token: Anything easy to keep track/ implement
        i.e. Stickers, Points
      - Premack Principle
        
        More-preferred activity can be used to reinforce less-preferred activity
        i.e. Young children learn to sit still (less-preferred) if behavior is reinforced with opportunity to run around & make noise later (more preferred)
    - - Positive Punishment
        
        Apply or Give
        
        Application/ Presentation of -ve stimulus aft response & Decreases prob of response occur again
        i.e. Touch hot plate (application) results in painful wound
        or spanking/ speeding tickets
      - Negative Punishment
        
        Remove or Withdraw
        
        Removing of attractive stimulus aft response & Decrease prob of response occur again
        i.e. Removing of ipad when child misbehave