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Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life (Functional Groups (Hydroxyl…
Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
Organic Chemistry
Study of structures containing carbon and its interactions
C, H, O, N makes up life
Stan Miller's Experiment
Abiotic Synthesis of Organic Molecules
Attempt to prove organic stuff can synthesize from antibiotic stuff
Theorizes how life may have formed
Carbon Bonds
Basic Info
Carbon can form 4 bonds b/c of 4 valence electrons
Gives/takes 4 electrons
Can form covalent bonds
Basic Shapes
1 Tetrahedron (i.e methane (CH4))
2 or more Tetrahedrons (i.e Ethane C2H6)
Double Bonds (i.e Ethene (ethylene)(C2H4))
Normally bonds with H, O, N
Forms skeletons in most organic molecules
Valence
Amount of unpaired electrons
Shows number of possible covalent bonds
Hydrocarbons
Organic molecules that only has hydrogen and carbon
Makes up fuel; petroleum
Characteristics
Some molecules can have non-polar bonds; hydrophobic
Can release energy through reactions (i.e. petroleum)
How To Find Amount of Carbons & Hydrogens
(Single bonds) # of carbons * 2 + 2
(Double bonds) # of carbons * 2 + 2 - 2(per double bond)
Carbon Structures
Isomers
Compounds w/same elements but arranged differently
Structural Isomers
Different element placement
Cis-Tran Isomers
Cis Isomer
Atom/group of atoms are on the same side
Tran Isomer
Atom/group of atoms are on different sides
Change in structure changes function of organic molecules
Enantiomer
Two compounds are mirror images of each other
Asymmetrical
Left-hand won't fit right-handed glove & vice versa
Functional Groups
Hydroxyl
Polar b/c of electronegative oxygen.
Dissolves compounds such as sugar
Usually ends on -ol; alcohol (i.e ethanol)
Hydrogen bonds w/water
Carbonyl
Destabilizes bonds in carbon chain
Ketone
Found within carbon skeleton
Ketoses + sugars w/ ketone groups (i.e acetone)
Aldehyde
Found at end of carbon skeleton
Aldoses = Sugars w/ aldehydes (i.e. propanal)
Carboxyl
Acid b/c of covalent bond between oxygen & hydrogen is very polar
Gives H+ (H ions; protons)
Carboxylic acid or organic acid (i.e. acetic acid, carboxylate ion)
Amino
Base; takes H+ (H ions/protons)
Picks up H+ from surrounding solution (i.e water in living things)
Amine compund (i.e glycine, ionized -NH2)
Sulfhydryl Group
Crosslink (reactions) help stabilize protein structure (i.e hair structure)
Thiol compund (i.e Cysteine)
Phosphate
Affects negative charge (-1 when inside chain; -2 when at end of chain)
Helps react w/water; releases energy
Organic Phosphate Compound (i.e glycerol phosphate)
Methyl
Affects gene expression on DNA or proteins on DNA
Affects male/female sex hormone shape/function
Methylated Compound (i.e 5-Methylcytosine)
ATP
Adenosine + 3 phosphate groups (thus, tri-)
Main energy provider; involved in cellular respiration
ADP
One phosphate is broken; energy is broken from there
Only 2 phosphate groups remain (thus, di-)
Broken off phosphate brings energy to another molecule
The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
Macromolecules
Big molecules classified into 4 groups (carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
Polymer
Long molecule built of similar looking building blocks (monomers)
Held by covalent bonds
Train with chain of cars
Monomer
Individual building blocks that build polymers
Each macromolecule has one
(i.e carbs - monosacchirides, lipids - fatty acid chains & glycerol, proteins - amino acids, nucleic acids - nucelotides)
Synthesis/Breakdown
Enzymes
Facilitates chemical reactions; speeds them up
Dehydration
Taking an H20 apart and using them to bond two molecules
Hydrolysis
Taking an H20 to take apart two monomers/ breakdown polymers
Carbohydrates
Monosacchirides
Has carbonyl group C=O
(i.e trioses - 3 carbon sugars , pentoses - 5 carbon sugars, hexoses - 6 carbon sugars)
Ends in -ose most often (i.e glucose, ribose, fructose, galactose)
Provide immediate energy (i.e. cellular respiration)
Simple Sugars
Tastes sweet
Disacchirides
Two monosacchirides joined by covalent bonds (glycosidic linkage)
Glycosidic Linkage
Covalent bond between 2 monosacchirides by dehydration
(i.e. maltose, sucrose
Polysaccharides
Polymers joined by glycosidic linkages
Many functions
Storage Polysaccharides
Storage of energy
Can be broken by hydrolysis
Starch
- stores energy (glucose)
Found in potatoes and other foods
Glycogen
- animal energy storage; extensively branched
Structural Polysaccharides
Strong structure support
Cellulose
- plant cell structure strength
Undigestable; fiber
Chitin
- structure for insect exoskeleton
Complex Sugars
Doesn't taste sweet
Consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Lipids
Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol
Relatively non-polar; hydrophobic
Triacylglycerol
Saturated Fats
All carbons are with a hydrogen; no spaces are left in structural model
Has single bonds
Solid at room temp.
Unsaturated Fats
Some spaces are left; some carbons don't have hydrogens
Has double bonds
Liquid at room temp.
Phospholipids
Helps w/cell membrane structure in everything
Phosphate head is hydrophillic (loves water); polar
Fatty acid tail(s) is hydrophobic (hates water), doesn't mix w/it; non-polar
Amphipathic
- non-polar and polar
Steroids
Carbon skeleton; four-fused rings
Interlocking rings of C, H, O
Doesn't have tails
Not stored energy
Cholesterol
Precursor of other steroids (sex hormones)
Synthesized in liver
Found in certain foods
Long-term storage
Proteins
Catalysts
Protein enzymes that regulate metabolism; speeds up chemical reactions
Amino Acids
Has amino group and carboxyl group
Polypeptides
Bond between amino acids; polymer of protein
Peptide Bond
Covalent bond between carboxyl group on amino acids, formed by dehydration
Makes up polypeptides
20 amino acids exists
Helps w/ structure of many things (i.e. muscle fibers)
Protein Structure
Secondary
Helix made from hydrogen bonding
Alpha + Beta is also secondary structure
Alpha Helix
Has spring shape
Beta Pleated Sheet
Has zig-zag shape
Tertiary
Folding of proteins
Many proteins present
Primary
Straight line of amino acids (polypeptides)
Quaternary
Proteins fit together like a puzzle piece (structurally)
Typically not held by bonds
Denaturation
Protein incorrectly folds; caused by heat
Caused by weak bonds
Possible consequences can happen like mutation or an inactive protein
Nucleic Acids
Help w/ gene expression
Nucleotides
Nucleic acid monomer
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Is in chromosomes
46 DNA molecules in each nucleus of humans; eggs and sperm have 23
Polynucletides
5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
1-3 phosphate groups
Nitrogenous Base
Pyrimidine
1 six-membered ring of carbon + nitrogen atoms
Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil (RNA)
Purine
Six-membered ring + five-memberd ring
Adenine and Guanine
Uses A, T, C, G;
A - T, C - G
Has double-helix
Nitrogenous bases are connected by hydrogen bonds
RNA
Helps make proteins using DNA
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Sugar used is ribose
Has A. U (Uracil), C, G
Single-stranded
Involved w/ bioinformatics, genomics, & proteomics
