Meditation

Klostermaier - 'Interestingly, study and supernatural faculties are mentioned, which many would count among commendable 'religious' activities. Since they engage faculties other than the meditative mind, they have to be 'cut out'

General & Foundations

Meditation as one of the three divisions of the arya magga occupies a central place in Buddhist practice. It is more generally known as Bhavana (Cultivation/Making become) and is the principal Buddhist strategy for making oneself what one wishes to be. The importance of meditation is evident through the Buddha having gained enlightenment via meditation. The image of the Buddha seated in the lotus position is a popular theme of Buddhism and a constant reminder of the close association between meditation and bodhi. Virtually all Buddhist schools see meditation as a critical component of attaining enlightenment and a major part of the experiential dimension of Buddhism as a religion

Gray - Several terms are used to refer to meditation when they actually have much more precise meanings in the Buddhist cannon. Jhana, Bhavana and Samadhi have been used by Western writers to refer to the practices of meditation when actually, Jhana = Stages of meditation, Bhavana = Specific types of Buddhist meditiation/the whole 'entourage' of meditation practices in Buddhism & Samadhi = Higher states of meditative consciousness/concentration/state of trance OR state of very deep & permanent inner peace that comes from understanding anatta

Meditative techniques in use at the time of the Buddha were part of a common approach shared by sramanas and brahminical hindus. 1) This is due to an upsurge in interest in the interior dimension of spiritual life that occurred a few centuries previously, leading to the composition of the Upanishads, treatise which sought to explain the relationship between the inner self/atman and the cosmic ground of being while describing techniques by which the self could realise its identity with the higher reality (brahman). Although the Buddha disagreed with much of the underlying philosophy of these texts, he agreed with their sotieriological message that salvation must be sought from within and could only come through a deep understanding of one's true nature (namely by understanding the skandas and anatta)

2) A secondary influence is that the Buddha was likely familiar with the Yoga tradition with its sophisticated techniques for disciplining both the mind and body. The Buddha did not invent meditation, but he did make significant modifications which make Buddhist meditation distinct in theory and practice.

Meditation may be defined as an altered state of consciousness which is induced in a controlled manner. The aim of meditation is to nurture positive mental states in order to open up access to the jhanas (meditation states) or samadhi (concentrations). Through meditation, a Buddhist may be described as being more 'awake'.

The goal of meditation is not to be 'elsewhere' but to be here, fully conscious and aware of the specific moment of existence, becoming mentally concentrated rather than fragmented and distracted by all the other factors of existence (skandas)

Keown provides two analogies for the nature of the mind/concentration via meditative practices. 1) Like light; relatively powerless when diffuse however when focused and concentrated, it can cut through steel. 2) Sound - Meditative practices seek to screen out the mental 'static' and reduce the mental 'chatter' which dissipates psychic energy.

1) Alara - Taught Buddha a meditative state known as the 'sphere of nothingness', a mystical trance attained by yogic concentration in which the mind goes beyond any apparent object to focus on the remaining 'nothingness' 2) Uddaka - Taught the 'sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception' which resulted in a level of mental stilling where consciousness was lowered to such a level as to hardly exist. Although we cannot know for sure what instructions the Buddha received (focusing on breathing/anapanasati or repeating a mantra or studying an object in absolute detail until he could recreate a perfect mental image of it) however, in all cases, the aim is to create a unified field of consciousness.

Meditation is not east as the mind continually throws up distractions, described in Buddhist sources as being like a monkey which swings through the trees, taking hold of one branch after another, like how the mind moves from grasping one idea to another (as shown in the 12 Niddanas) due to the impermanence that arises from the skandas. firm and steady concentration comes from regular practice and it normally takes several months until results are achieved, with meditation requiring determination, commitment and daily practice,

Results eventually manifest themselves in the form of heightened powers of concentration and an increasing sense of calm and inner stillness, which are carried over into everyday life. Distractions, worries, doubts and fears lose their hold over the mind and the meditator becomes generally more 'together' living more fully in the here and now (this is similar to sopadhishesha-nirvana/nirvana with remainer, where the believer is not negatively impacted by dukkha that they experience; they are beyond the realms of negative sankharas and kleshas). Meditators who are particularly adept may eventually achieve samadhi or the state of rapt absorption and complete & unwavering inner stillness.

Jhanas

Basis for the framework of meditation, detailing the different levels of trance that are achieved first through Samatha and developed via Vipassana. First/Lowest Jhana - Mind thinks discursively, moving from one thought to another (The 'Monkey mind' as described in Buddhist scripture) but is filled with detachment, rapture and joy. Second Jhana - Discursive thought falls away and is replaced by absorption (samadhi) and a heightened sense of awareness. Third Jhana - Rapture is replaced by equanimity and in the fourth even, equanimity gives way to a state described as 'beyond pleasure and pain'

Sphere of Pure Form (ACCEPTED BY MOST BUDDHIST SCHOOLS DUE TO MENTION IN SCRIPTURE VIA LIFE OF THE BUDDHA AFTER ENLIGHTENMENT) = 1st Jhana - Discursive thought, Detachment, Rapture and Joy. 2nd Jhana - Concentration, Rapture, Joy. 3rd Jhana - Concentration & Equanimity - 4th Jhana - Concentration, Equanimity 'Beyond pain and pleasure'. Abhinnas/Iddhi gained at this stage are Clairvoyance, Clairaudience, Retrocognition (Buddha is aware of past lives), Telepathy (Buddha is able to tame an angry elephant) & Psychokinesis (Buddha is able to command streams of fire and water). Sphere of the Formless - (ADDITIONAL JHANAS, NOT ACCEPTED BY ALL SCHOOLS) - 5th Jhana - Infinite Space. 6th Jhana - Infinite Consciousness. 7th Jhana - Nothingness. 8th Jhana - Neither Perception nor non-perception. Attainment of Cessation - 'Touching NIbbana with the body''

These mystical experiences seem to transcend our linguistic categories and it is not easy to find the appropriate language to describe them (As supported by Otto and James on Mystical & Numinous RE). However, there is a trend for the higher states of trance to be increasingly subtle and sublime as the meditator moves away from conditioned reality (Samsara) towards the true reality (Nirvana)& for the grosser, more emotional, elements such as excitement and rapture to be replaced by a deeper and more refined absorption. This leads to ekaggata in which the mind remains fixed exclusively on the object of meditation in the laser-like manner referred to by Keown in his analogy (A permanent version of what is experienced/the goal of Samatha meditation.).

In the Fourth Jhana it is said that the mediator can develop various Iddhi which include the power to see events in remote places, to hear distant sounds, to recall previous lives and to know the thoughts of other. There is also a collection of psychokinetic powers such as the ability to fly/walk on water/create multiple bodies that are acquired. There is nothing specifically Buddhist about these powers and they are widely acknowledged in Indian traditions as being accessible by anyone willing to put in the time and effort to attain them. Whilst the Buddha is said to have possessed all of these abilities himself, he rarely demonstrated them and is known to have pointed out that it is simpler to hire a boatman rather than devote a large chunk of one's life to learning how to walk on water. This echoes the message of pragmatism and being practical/focusing on the end goal vs that which is supra-mundane, as mentioned in the Parable of the Poisoned Arrow

During the deeper stages of meditation, the main bodily functions become subdued and breathing is all but suspended. Research suggests that during this state the brain generates more alpha waves, indicating a condition of relaxed creativity, with many unusual sensations occurring such as perceptions of light, feeling of floating or lightness in the limbs. This shows that meditation can have real effects upon the believer

At the deeper levels of trance, it is said that the natural purity of the mind, normally screened by the static of waking consciousness, manifests itself in its full radiance. The mind in this condition is likened in Buddhist scripture to purified gold in the malleable and pliable state from which precious objects are formed by a skilful artisan (Artisan = Meditator, who having access to the deep levels of the psyche, is equipped to undertake the task of remodelling himself)

Vasubandhu - Provides a list of 40 stages of meditation which come to form the basis of Samatha meditation. There is also a list of 40 meditation subjects which the student is given by their teacher after assessing the personality of the student and finding the right subject to suit his or her personality and spiritual needs (E.g someone who is attached to bodily pleasure might be instructed to meditation on the body as impermanent, subject to old age and sickness, and full of impurities, in order to weaken the attachment to it OR a person may reflect on a dead body to come face to face with how urgent it is to make the best use of the previous opportunities which human rebirth has bestowed). This realisation aspect is present in the Life of Buddha with the realisation the Buddha experiences after the Four Sights

Samatha/Calming Meditation

Involves the development of mental concentration by various methods which gradually lead one through the levels of trance detailed in the Jhanas and described by Rahula as merely having instrumental value in achieving Nirvana, not intrinsic value as they are conditioned phenomena. This is the basic form of meditation which existed before the Buddha and is not purely Buddhist

While some Buddhists argue that Samatha and Vipassana are exclusive, many other see Samatha as providing the basic foundations in terms of development and mindfulness and concentration, from which one can then go on to Vipassana which leads to a penetration of the mind (samadhi) & eventually, Nirvana and thus, both are necessary components of Buddhist practice. Dr Rahula - Samatha meditation has nothing to do with Nirvana, stating that this form of meditation existed before Buddhism and whilst not excluded from Buddhist meditation, it is not necessary to achieve Nirvana. However, Gethin disagrees, saying the mind is fundamentally clear and pure but it has become stained by the defilements of craving/kleshas. Therefore, via Samatha, the mind is restored to something of its original state of clarity and stillness. This clarity of mind provides the opportunity for seeing into the operation of the defilements and the mind's true nature, helping one attain a true understanding of reality and subsequently, Nirvana

Right Mindfulness begins with 'bare attention' which is defined as the 'clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to and in us, at the successive moments of perception'. The aim is to achieve a one-pointedness of concentration and awareness (Ekaggata) through overcoming the '5 hindrances' (Niravana) so that they no longer obscure thought and awareness (HEAVILY PRESENT WITHIN MAHAYANAN).

Samatha works by focusing completely/heavily on one central object and achieving one-pointness/ekaggata. Other thoughts and mental 'chatter'/distractions fade away, leaving the mind calm and pure, from which enlightenment can be realised in this pure state of mind

The effort taken to overcome these niravanas is a schooling to focus on one thing, and one thing only (hence the use of focus objects) as detailed by Buddhagosha's Visuddhimagga. The 5 hindrances begin with 1) Sensual Desire, where the mind is drawn off to seek happiness via the senses. 2) Ill-Will, where the mind tries to reject the meditation through feelings of hostility, resentment, hatred and bitterness. 3) Sloth and Lethargy - One has to overcome the passivity of the mind and the body. 4) Restless Worry - Mind diverts between excitement and unease. 5) Doubt - The mind wonders whether the meditation is actually worth the effort.

Gethin - Compares the mind tainted by the hindrances to 'a bowl of water disturbed or contaminated in 5 ways; mixed with red dye, steaming hot, full of moss and leaves, ruffled by the wind & muddied and in a dark place. If someone should look down into a bowl of water contaminated in any one of these 5 ways, then he would not be able to see a clear and true reflection of himself. If one were to look into a bowl of water that is free from such contaminations, one would see a true and clear reflection'. This shows that samatha is imperative to achieving nirvana and acts as the foundations for vipassana as the 'clear water' of the mind allows for one to gain a true insight into one's own nature

7 Recollections/Anussati = 1) Buddha 2) Dharma 3) Sangha 4) Good conduct 5) Generosity 6) Gods 7) Mindfulness of death are often suited to 'access concentration' or the basic level of achieving a state of calm/meditation while others such as the 10 Kasinas of 1) Water 2) Earth 3) Fire 4) Air 5) Red 6) Yellow 7) White 8) Blue 9) Light 10) Limited Space and anapanasati are suited for both basic and more advanced states. The 4 Formless Meditations of 1) Boundless Space 2) Boundless Consciousness 3) Nothingness 4) Neither perception nor non-perception are only seen as being able to be cultivated by someone advanced in the practice of samatha meditation as these 4 meditations are sometimes known as the 5th-8th additional jhanas.

Satipatthana Sutta - Buddha divides his practice of samatha meditation into four sections which Klostermaier describes as the four objects of mindfulness; 1) Kaya/Body 2) Vedana/Feelings 3)Citta/States of Mind 4) Dhamma/Objects or phenomena. Each part is further subdivided into numerous parts and perspectives however, in all sections, the essential element of meditation is mindfulness or awareness.

Anapanasati is one of the most popular practices for Samatha meditation and it involves attempting to concentrate solely on breathing, letting all distracting thoughts and feelings fade away. Cush believes it is helpful to count the breaths - up to about 100 - and to try to feel the air entering and leaving through the nose. Nyanaponika Thera writes that it is 'an exercise in mindfulness, not a breathing exercise' and is thus a bare observation of the flow of breath. However, Narada Thera also thinks that the mindfulness of breathing, rightly done, can become an important factor of physical and mental health because of its calming effect (as more Oxygen goes to the brain, so brain activity increases)

Amongst the most popular meditation subjects in Samatha meditation are the Brahma Vihara = 1) Metta (Loving-kindness) 2) Karuna (Compassion) 3) Mudita (Sympathetic Joy) 4) Upekkha (|Equanimity). Of these, Metta Bhavana is one of the most popular, involving the development of an attitude of benevolence, friendship and goodwill towards all living creatures. This is done in 5 stages: 1) Love for oneself as an object of good will. This is not narcissism but it is crucial in itself as love for oneself has to be appreciated in order to be able to share this with others as one who is affected by low self-esteem/consumed with self-loathing will not be capable of loving others fully. The meditators review his good and bad points as objectively as possible while keeping in mind the thoughts 'may I be well with myself' and 'may I be happy and free from suffering'. 2) The next stages gradually extend the circle of benevolence and metta to others 'like a skilled ploughman marks out his territory then covers it', beginning with extending the focus to a dear friend, thinking of their good qualities and repeating 'may they be well, may they be happy'. 3) Focus on someone we may think that we dislike in general but try to neutralise feelings through focusing on their humanity and including them in the group so far developed with self and friend. 4) Resolves conflict and deals with feelings of hate, perhaps for an individual who has caused us pain or is doing so. The feelings of hate need to be countered with metta & positive thought about their humanity. In the Mahayanan tradition, to assist with these thoughts, one ought to imagine the object of their hatred as being your mother in a previous life, bringing that person closer to yourself so the conflict can be overcome head on. 5) Brings together all four focuses as a group, but then to gradually extend this to everyone around (in the neighbourhood, town, country and then to all sentient beings). This is often described as waves of metta spreading out from the heart to everywhere.

Dalai Lama - 'We can never obtain peace in the outer world until we make peace with ourselves'

At every opportunity, the meditator reviews and recalls deeds of kindness done to him by others, even in past lives after retrocognition has been gained in the 4th Jhana. The cultivation of the universal goodwill frees the mind from partiality and prejudice so that individual begins to act towards others with kindness and without discrimination.

The remaining three Brahma Vihara are cultivated in a similar way. Through Karuna, the meditator identifies with the suffering of others and through Mudita he rejoices in their happiness and good fortune. The cultivation of Upekkha ensures that these dispositions are always balanced and appropriate to the circumstances.

Metta Sutta - 'May all beings, without exception, be happy and secure, may they be happy minded. Let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings. Let his thoughts of boundless loving-kindness pervade the whole world'

Vipassana/Insight Meditation

The Buddha's reason for leaving his two teachers was that he saw that entering a state of trance, however blissful and serene, was a temporary escape and not a permanent solution to the problem of suffering. Like everything else in samsara, meditational states are impermanent and thus what these teachers and their techniques failed to provide was the kind of deep philosophical insight into the nature of things needed for complete liberation and nirvana

Gethin - 'In developed Buddhist theory... Samatha and Vipassana are seen together as forming the basis for the realisation of the Buddhist goal: when calm and insight meditation are brought together (Yuganaddha), the unconditioned (Nirvana) may be experienced'

The focus of all sentient creation within Metta Bhavana is too large to develop ekaggata and transquility. It is valid to say that perhaps ekaggata is an goal made unachievable due to the fallibility of the human condition (we are inherently inconsistent and cannot narrow our minds to being one-pointed)

The focus of Metta Bhavana is divergent from the single focal point of the self, not convergent from a focal point of all of sentient creation. Therefore, this allows ekaggata to be maintained through gradual shifts and extensions of pre-established focus.

One of the main aims of the Dharma is to see clearly, and be aware of reality as it really is. To achieve this, a Buddhist must train the mind to be in control of the thoughts that fill it via meditation, allowing the practitioner to transform life towards enlightenment. Only then can thoughts motivated by the 3 kleshas be replaced with peacefulness. Buddhists also believe that what you think becomes what you do (Sankharas influence Karma), so it is important to cultivate positive emotions, good-will to all, contentment and happiness. This mental development happens via meditation and worship (where a person expresses joy, gratitude and examine life mistakes)

Meditation is prevalent within the Life of the Buddha from the teachings of Alarma and Uddaka to when the Buddha slipped into the 1st Jhana under a tree at an agricultural ceremony after watching worms being eaten by small birds, which were then eaten by larger birds (this was the subject of a meditation on anicca). Moreover, meditation is heavily influenced by Hindu Yoga which involves 8 stages; 1&2) Make a conscious effort not to harm others and establish good relationships. 3&4) Sitting postures and controlled breathing. 5) Withdrawing the mind from external factors and focusing inwards. 6) Fixing the mind on a single object/thought. 7&8) Meditation which allows the mind to rise above ordinary thought and be directly aware of reality

The Buddha therefore developed Vipassana to supplement the practices he had learnt. The goal of this was not peace and tranquillity, like samatha, but the generation of penetrating and critical insight/panna into the true nature of reality/dharma by which the three fires of loba, dosa and moha can be extinguished and thus, Nirvana can be achieved. It is linked to Right Mindfulness whereas Samatha is linked to Right Effort. Samatha prepares the mind for Vipassana

Whereas in Samatha meditation, intellectual activity subsides at an early sight, in Vipassana, the object of the exercise is to bring the critical faculties fully into play in a detailed reflexive analysis of the meditator's own state of mind. In Vipassana, the mind gains insight into the truth/dharma that allows the believer to move towards Nirvana whereas, in Samatha, the mind is cleared.calmed so that Nirvana can be found/attained in the purity of the mind. In practice, the two teachings are often used back to back within the same session (in yuganaddha meditation); samatha is first used to concentrate the mind then Vipassana to prove and analyse. This technique is analysed in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta. Vipassana mainly involves looking at your mind as though from the outside, to break through the conventional workings of the mind, habits of thought and to see things as they are really are.

Visuddhimagga has been used as a guide/manual for Vipassana, offering advice and techniques for how the mind may be focused in order to gain the insight sought after within Vipassana. The text details that 1) the meditator must be prepared (often via samatha) and this cannot be undertaken casually by anyone at any time/place; not only must one cultivate the virtues (paramis) but they should also practice restrain, follow the rules (particularly within the monastic order) and take part in the Patimokkha Ceremony (A ceremony in which one devotes themselves to Buddhism and the Dharma, often in a monastic context)

2) Buddhagosha also identified 10 impediments/palibodha within the Visuddhimagga which must be 'cut out' before meditation. These are 1) Avasa/Abode 2) Kula/Family 3) Labha/Gain 4) Gana/Group 5) Karma/Activities 6) Addhana/Travel 7) Jati/Relations 8) Abadha/Illness 9) Gantha/Study 10) Iddhi/supernatural faculties. Some of these are obvious, such as the idea that one who lives in a crowded house, surrounded by family and friends & worried about income would struggle to be able to focus on meditation.

3) There is a need for a guide to assist the person in developing their meditation practice. This person is called a Kalyana Mitta and is 'dearly loved, revered, a counsellor, a patient listener, a speaker of profound words, one who does not waste a student's efforts'. The Kalyana Mitta becomes the personal adviser of the meditator, in charge of their formation and growth (development of insight and skills etc.), who is there to provide support when the meditator encounters a psychological/physical experience which they need help to explain. They are also there to guide the practice by giving the meditator a specific topic suited to them, following the tradition whereby the Buddha gave each newcomer a meditation topic suited to their individual personality and needs.

Buddhists have developed a psychology of human types with meditation topics that are linked as being suitable for each one. They mostly relied on the interpretation of body language to discern which type the individual belonged to; 'by the posture, action, eating, seeing and so on, by the kind of states occurring may temperament be recognised'. Buddhagosha identified a sixfold schema, divide into two sections, each made up of three types. Persons dominated by Emotions - 1) Raga-carita - The greed type, characterised by deceit, craftiness, conceit, ostentation, discontent, fickleness, etc.2) Dosa-carita - The hate type, characterised by anger, bearing grudges, envy, meanness, etc. 3) Moha-Carita - The delusion type, characterised by sloth, torpor, worry, perplexity, obstinacy, excitability, etc. & Persons dominated by Intellect = 4) Saddha-carita - The faith type, characterised by generosity, desire to see holy people, to hear the Dharma, guilelessness, a serene confidence, etc 5) Buddhi-carita - The intelligence type, characterised by gentleness, capacity for friendship with good people, moderation, mindfulness, wise effort, etc. 6) Vitakka-carita - The argumentative type, characterised by talkativeness, brooding, aimlessly rushing around, dislike for discipline, fondness for company etc.

The Visuddhimagga states that the first 3 types can be diagnosed from one's walk; 'The step of the greed type will be springy... the hate type will be dragging... a delusion-type will be jerky'. Once their type is identified, the Kalyana Mitta wll diagnose the correct subject for the person to meditate on. Raga-Carita should meditate on the Asubha objects (disgusting objects e.g corpses), Dosa-carita should meditate on the Brahma-vihara, Moha-carita should practice anapanasati, Saddha-carita should practice the anussati such as the triratna, Buddhi-carita should recollect peace and death & Vitakka-carita should practice anapanasati

In Vipassana, the meditator examines every aspect of his subjective experience, observing the arising and passing away of physical, experiential or mental phenomena. A typical session might proceed by extending awareness of the rise and fall of the breath to the rest of the body. Every minor sensation would be noted such as twinges, aches, itches and the impulse to move. The meditator does not respond to these impulses as the purpose of the exercise is to notice with bare, objective attention how bodily sensations arise and subside without reacting to them in the normal semi-automatic, allowing the meditator to strip away the aspects of reality that are unimportant to truly understanding the Dharma or that prevent true insight, By learning to observe without becoming involved, the pattern of stimulus-response which underlines much of human behaviour can be broken. This pattern is evident in conditioned experiences due to patticasammupada, expressed in the 12 Niddanas and overcome via Nirodha/Sopadishesha-Nirvana which prevents the formation of voluntary responses/habits from negative sankhara. Little by little, the realisation dawns that one is free to choose how to react in all situations regardless of what buttons are pushed, The grip of long-standing habits and compulsions is weakened and replaced with a new sense of freedom. This analysis is gradually extended to the whole body. From this, the awareness arises that the body is nothing more than a temporary assemblage of material pieces (skandas), certainly not a worthy object to become attached to

Next, attention is directed to feelings, both pleasant and sad which are noted as they arise and pass away. This sharpens the perception of impermanence and gives rise to the knowledge that even those things which are most intimate to us (such as our emotions) are transient. Next, the person's current mood and fluctuations in its overall quality and tone are observed, and finally, the stream of thoughts which passes through the mind. The meditator must resist the temptation to lose himself in the daydreams and fantasies which inevitably arise. Instead, he simply observes with detachment as the thoughts and images follow one another. From this detached observation, the meditator learns that even one's conscious mind is but a process like everything else - it is just an aspect of the more complex interaction of the skandas and not what one 'really is'

The realisation that there is no hidden subject who is the owner of these various sensations, feelings, moods and ideas and that all that exists are the experiences themselves is the transformative insight which triggers bodhi. The recognition that there is ultimately no subject that 'has' desires weakens and finally destroys craving one and for all - the clamourings of the ego, with its vanities, illusions, cravings and disappointments are silenced. Vipassana doesn't always involve sitting. The most popular posture is 'mindfulness of walking', which is done very slowly, often in an open space such as a field outside of a monastery. The practitioner forms a distinct 'path' in their mind and follows it back and forth and thus, the Buddhist can develop Vipassana by applying it to life experiences. Vipassana is also often done in the lotus position (legs crossed, feet rested soles upwards on the thigh and sitting up straight)

Part of Vipassana is confronting the truth of anatta. We are in the habit of assigning a thinker to a thought, a doer to a deed. However, when you realise that the self cannot be defined, then it no longer makes sense to attribute an action to one point in space and time. There is no 'you' separate to the thought or deed.

Mahayanan Developments

Keown - There are 3 major categories of meditative practices that can be identified as developments within Mahayana, with a greater emphasis on empowerment and action. 1) Older structures of Samatha and Vipassana, characterised by tranquillity and withdrawal continues but now infused with a new fervour that makes meditation the basis for moral action in the world. 2) Resurgence of pre-Buddhist visionary and ecstatic techniques aimed at the construction of alternate realities and the gaining of magical powers. These techniques centred upon the process of visualisation, wherein the meditator actually produces an alternative reality for himself (such as Sukhavati for Pure Land Buddhists - They believe that as thoughts manifest into actions/influence reality, people meditate on birth in sukhavati so in the next life, they are reborn in Sukhavati). A similar technique is used as the basis of the complex contemplations of the Tantras. Here, the meditator creates a world where he is the central buddha, abiding within a divine mansion of knowledge called a mandala. Within this new contemplative reality, he magically manipulates the powerful symbols of his own transformation and coerces the attainment of Buddhahood itself (this is common within Vajrayana) 3) Involves development of new techniques of spontaneity to achieve a direct experience of freedom. This final flowering of the Buddhist contemplative genius took place outside the academies, where people were searching for a technique that aimed directly at enlightenment in the world through a liberated mode of action amid the events of daily life. This seems to have been closely associated with the Tantric tradition and the term 'Great Symbol' (Mahamudra) was used as a general term for an entire complex of such contemplative techniques.

Amitayus Meditation Sutra - 'Meditator sits down facing west (towards Sukhavati) and first visualises the setting sun... he visualises the land as filled with gold...crystal streams and lakes filled with lotus flowers. Finally, he visualises himself being born in the Western Land of Happiness

In this third technique, the meditator concentrates not upon an external object but rather on his own thoughts, the very source of his delusion. He watches his thoughts flash by, and he seeks neither to control them nor to fall under their spell (Similar to Vipassana). Gradually, he learns to let his mind remain in its natural flow. He casts aside all labels and abandons even the act of attention so that his mind is left in its genuine space (similar to Samatha). Thus, he learns to recognise every mental event in its true nature (emptiness/sunyata). By recognising this nature in every thought, he is spontaneously freed from every thought. He realises that every event he experiences is innate and spontaneous, and that every even - being void of svabhava - is itself enlightenment. At this stage, he no longer 'meditates; as a formal practice, but instead abides spontaneously in the flow of daily life (meditation transform from a formal, distinct practice to a way of approaching and living life)

Zen Buddhism

Zen Buddhism is a Japanese form of Mahayana Buddhism developed from Chinese Ch'an Buddhism. The founder of Ch'an and Zen Buddhism was an Indian monk named Bodhidharma & thus, there is an Indian influence within Zen of the traditional Yogic practice of posture while sitting. Za = Sitting and Zen is a translation of the Chinese word Ch'an which in turn developed from the Sanskrit Dhyana/Jhana and thus, it refers to a state of deep absorption in meditation. Zazen then means 'sitting in absorption' and is the name of Zen Buddhist meditation practice

Zazen is similar to the Indian Traditions but there is a new emphasis on a sudden awakening of Buddha-nature to Enlightenment (Satori), which (according to Zen) happens instantaneously and is often spontaneous. The meditation process also involves a more in-depth appreciation of the emptiness (sunyata) of all phenomena and attempting to become aware of the enlightenment already within us. The aim of zen is to reveal buddhahood in the present moment, not to reach for it in the future The practice of Zazen lasts for hours and one and is often performed during a Sesshin (retreat) but also in a zendo (Meditation hall) under the careful eye of a senior monk. The ultimate aim of Zen Meditation is to achieve such a complete state of awareness that the autopilot that most of us function on in our normal daily routines is switched off, leaving us in a state of total absorption in each moment of each task we carry out; they try to experience each moment directly, without the distraction of thoughts, fears, memories or hopes so that they are ultimately aware of every taste, feeling, sound and smell. By doing this, the Buddhist becomes one with each moment, so that when they eat, that is all they do, focusing entirely on the activity of eating, tasting the food etc. without letting any distractions to enter their consciousness. Thoughts are a natural art of the mind, which need to be acknowledged, but then put to one side so that the mind is liberated from the worries and concerns they bring, and thus achieving liberation from the Kleshas/defilements of the mind, leaving only the truth of the moment.

Others aspects of zen meditation = 1) Kanjin - It means to observe your own mind/ to see the truth of your life and is similar to Vipassana, but combines chanting and a visual object of concentration. In some schools, the phrase 'Nam Myoho Renge Kyo'/'I dedicate my life to the Dharma and the law of Karma for eternity'. This is accompanied by a paper scroll called a Gohonzon. On the scroll are characters from Chinese/Sanskrit which represent life aspects of life and enlightenment. Nichiren Buddhists believe that chanting to the scroll will eventually bring enlightenment, with their chants spreading out through the universe. 2) Juzu - Prayer beads used to track how many times a mantra has been said. In the time of the Buddha, red beads were used to count mantras however, now, Juzu are used by all members of the Four-Fold Sangha. There are usually 108 beads to represent 108 worldly desires & 2 tassels to represent the Buddha and the Dharma or three to represent the Sangha. When the beads are held in the hand and crossed, it symbolises a denial of worldly desire.

While Buddhists do not pray to any Gods or believe in any kind of magic, they do have their own form of puja/Worship. Often, a home or a temple may have a butsudan or shrine where a Buddhist can contemplate. Worship is simple and direct and involves linking the emotions to thought and action. A Buddhist may give thanks or express regret while making an offering. Butsudan means 'Place of the Buddha' in Japanese and are Buddhist Shrines. They may feature a statue or picture of the Buddha as a focal point, but the image is not itself worshipped. Shrines may contain symbolic objects/offerings; Vegetation (Flowers or evergreen leaves) - Symbol of Anicca, Food or Water - Life-sustaining and of ultimate value, Candles - Enlightenment, Incense - Purifying Dharma spreading throughout the world

Evaluation

Within Buddhism, meditation is the most important practice and is practised at all levels by all Buddhist followers, from simple focus in devotion to advanced meditational techniques. Therefore, due to the nature of meditation as accessible to all while being the vehicle of self-development and attaining Nirvana, it has great value for Buddhists and is of complete relevance.

Even though there are different types of meditation, they all share a common goal of Bodhi as the soteriological goal, but also the common advantage of developing the powers of concentration and further insight into the teachings of Buddhism. Therefore, even if the meditation doesn't result in Bodhi, it is still critical for intellectual development.

There is debate on whether or not meditation has the same value and importance for all Buddhists today.. Within Buddhism, it would appear that meditation has greater value and meaning for those who follow a mainly monastic way of life where the focus is very much on the practice of meditation. It could be argued that many Buddhists are excluded from the true benefits of meditation that arise from long-term devotion as most Buddhists would not be able to give as much focus to meditation. Lay Buddhists may focus on comprehending and embodying the Dharma via their actions while leading a wholesome life, generating good karma and supporting the Sangha (with devotions being more basic and featuring elements of offerings and supporting rather than direct meditative involvement) as this can be sustained alongside daily tasks vs meditation, meaning that meditation may not be important for Lay Buddhists in comparison to Monastic Buddhists as long-term devotion to meditation is required for positive effects to manifest.

However, one needs to remember that meditation is not just a single session of practice but a lifelong experience that incorporates all levels of spiritual development and all members of the Sangha. Even those who just touch upon aspects of meditation would agree that it is of value and importance for all Buddhists today, especially when one considers that aspects of meditation/Samadhi can be practised through/alongside daily activity (evident via walking meditation within Vipassana). This means there is no need for a specific/isolated focus/dedication to meditation as it can be developed along side natural life, allowing all Buddhists to access meditation and its effects. Moreover, when one considers that Vipassana can improve understanding of the Dharma, the nature of Vipassana as catalysing intellectual/spiritual development further highlights its value.

Meditation has value both in principle and practice. Principle - It is a principle established by the Buddha and will always be of value and relevance no matter at what stage of spiritual development a person is. Therefore, due to the integral component of meditation in the Buddha's attainment of bodhi under the Bodhi Tree and him as a role model & embodiment of the Dharma, the Buddha's own practice of Meditation highlights its importance to all Buddhists. Practice - Meditation has practical value as the more it is practised and developed, the more deep and profound the insight, awareness and mindfulness as skills develop/intensify and become more refined and habitual.

When meditation is viewed as a practice to be developed/ a path to follow, there is a possibility for spiritual elitism by those more developed in their meditative practices. Therefore, in this case, it may result in the presentation of Meditation as competitive, which in itself hinders the process of meditation and detachment as one becomes attached to their pride and their desire to 'outcompete' other believers on the path. The negative impact of this mentality is further evident when one realises that one of the Parajikas underlines the fact that boasting of spiritual achievement is alien to a monastic setting and could result in expulsion from the Sangha

Beyond Buddhism, meditation has value for Buddhists and non-Buddhists through the health benefits it provides. For example, Counselling psychology (CBT) and NHS in mental health have demonstrated the benefits of mindfulness and meditation techniques at a very basic level (Due to the re-emergence of holistic medicine within the NHS) as these techniques improve the health and well-being of an individual. In the same respect, meditation will always be of value and importance for all Buddhists, aside from Spiritual value, as it reduces suffering and stress, which is the basic premise from which Buddhism operates. It develops and strengthens understanding of the self and enhances spiritual development, hence demonstrating that it does have value

Whatever the case may be, one possible solution could be to accept that meditation always has value/importance for Buddhists, but there are different ways of appreciating this (value is also dependent on whether one is focusing on spiritual, physical or intellectual impacts)

Relative importance in different traditions

Theravada conveys the established tradition of meditation instigated by Gautama. The Hagiography of the Buddha clearly indicates the methods of focus that mirror Samatha and Vipassana that allows access to the Jhanas and insight into the nature of reality. Theravadans would argue that they are faithfully applying the principles of the Buddha in pursuit of enlightenment (it is the key instrument in attaining bodhi). In support of this reasoning on the importance of traditional techniques is the existence of a natural order of progression from Samatha and Metta the more advanced form of Vipassana

The traditions of meditation are complementary (as a clear mind, gained via samatha is needed for insight via Vipassana) and it is not the case that one type of meditation is more advanced/important than the other as they are all part of the same process. Each aspect relates to the other and builds up the experience, allowing it to break through ignorance. to say that one is more important would be like saying the 4th runner in a relay is the most important runner - the nature of the relay is that it is a team effort. This idea of inter reliance is similar to the 8 stages of the arya magga which are to be cultivated at the same time

The aim of meditation is to be at the most advanced stage of insight, which can achieved by monks and nuns due to the environment established within the monastery. This is therefore inevitable and so one could argue that Vipassana is the most important type of meditation to progress to and it has the most profound impacts on an individual.In support of this is the enlightenment experience of the Buddha who was able to access the jhanas, through which he developed the focus required for bodhi and the ability to see the true nature of reality/Dharma. It could be argued that the purpose of meditation overall is to experience the same enlightenment goal as the Buddha & therefore, to aspire to the highest form of meditation is the most desired pursuit.

click to edit

Another perspective that could be suggested is that each tradition and their respective meditative practice is important. As Buddhism spread, the principles of meditation have seen application to different cultures but also major developments within these cultures. To support this line of thought, one could argue that there has been the use of Upaya in adapting meditation to those who receive and use it. People are all different and the Buddha himself recognised this through the different ways he taught people. In the same way, it could be argued that as people are different, their needs to express themselves spiritually may also differ. Whatever the case, one possible solution that all forms of meditation have equal value for those who meditate, and they are all united in the same goal of Bodhi, especially as the Buddha taught about Ehipassiko and how there are multiple different ways to achieve Bodhi

Theravada is not the only tradition that promotes particular methods of meditation, Zen sees itself, aligned with the teaching of Hua Yen Buddhism, as the highest form of meditation. Through just-sitting, one can realise Satori without following the traditions of meditation associated with Theravada. In addition, there are claims made by Tibetan Buddhists that their form of meditation is most complete.