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Energy Metabolism: Respiration (Anaerobic Respiration: (fermentation)…
Energy Metabolism: Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration: (fermentation) respiration without oxygen
Glycolysis
1.) ATP phosphorylates glucose to glucose 6-phosphate
3.) Second ATP molecule then phosphorylates this to fructose-1,6- biphosphate
4.) Then breaks down to 3- phosphoglyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
5.) Dihydroxyacetone can be converted to a second molecule of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
6.) Now both can be oxidized to 1,3 Dihosphoglycerate. During this oxidation step, electrons are transferred from a carbon of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde to NAD+, converting to NADH
7.) Substrate-level phosphorylation: one of the phosphate groups from the 1,3- diphosphoglycerate is transferred onto an ADP making it into ATP and changing the 1,3-diphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate. The enzyme is phosphoglycerate kinase; the kinases constitute a large group of enzymes that remove phosphates groups from substrates
8.) 3-phosphoglycerate is converted first to 2-phosphoglycerate and then to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
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The initial 3 steps of glycolysis is just the anaerobic respiration (crosslink)
2) Glucose-6- phosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate
Obligate Anaerobes:carry out anaerobic exclusively
Fermentation of Alcoholic Beverages
Beer- Partially fermentation starchy seeds
Wheat Beer
Part of it starch must be converted to glucose by moistening the grain and allowing them to germinate
seedling root is visible the sprouting proceeds long enough the grains or dried to prevent any further enzymatic reactions
Malt-Sprouted, dried barely grains
Malt is mixed with water in a large vat called mash
Malt is the main ingredient= strong flavor
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Unsprouted grains or even corn syrup or potatoes are added to the malt making the beer have less flavor
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Sake
Rice is polish to remove all fruits and seeds coats then steamed to cook and soften it’s a starch grains
Then it is inoculated with the fungus
Aspergillus oryzae
. Then allowed to sit for several days. Enzymes from the
Aspergillus
depolymerize the starch to fermentable sugars
Rice gets a distinct moldy aroma, it is mixed with warm water then
S. cerevisiae
is added
Then fermented for almost a month
Aspergillus
Enzymes continue to convert more starch to sugar and the yeast ferments that to ethanol
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Wine- fermented fruit juices that are rich in sugars
Wine is a fermented grapes of the species
Vitis vinifera
Grapes harvested when they reach proper maturity in there sugar content is suitable (20% to 30%)
They are washed then crushed to obtain juice
White Wines- the skins are removed
S cerevisiae
is added to the juice and cooled lightly
Fermented at 50°F to 59°F
Red or Rose Wines the skins are mixed with the juice
Resveratrol is produced when yeast attacks the skins
S cerevisiae
is added to the juice and cooled lightly
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Spirits- ethanol content above 20%
Fermentation has produced enough alcohol to raise its concentration to 20%
Alcohol must be added (ethanol)
Solution must be distilled
Distillation solution is heated causing the alcohol to evaporate with some water and some flavoring compounds
The mixture between 173°- 212°F
Vapors are carried away to a pipe and chilled so vapors condense to a new liquid
Now it has a higher concentration of alcohol, less water and an altered set of flavorings
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Respiration: the process that breaks down complex carbons into simpler molecules and simultaneously generates the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) used to power other metabolic processes.
Aerobic Respiration: respiration that requires oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor
Obligate: (strict aerobes) must have oxygen for their respiration
The initial 3 steps of glycolysis is just the anaerobic respiration
ATP and NADH is produced just as before but with oxygen present in the NADH migrants to the electron carriers that oxidize it back to NAD+, permitting glycolysis
Pyruvate is transported from the cytosol
Electrons are transferred to NAD+
COO- is rearranged to CO2
Carbon dioxide and NADH are produced along with a two carbon fragment called acetyl
The carbon dioxide and NADH remain free in the matrix solution
The acetyl becomes attached to coenzyme A(CoA) resulting in combination of being acetyl CoA
Citric Acid Cycle
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Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Glucose-6-phosphate
NADP+ converted to NADPH + H+ and 6-phosphogluconolactone
6-phosphogluconate
NADP+ converted to NADPH +H+ and 6-phosphogluconate gives off carbon dioxide
Ribulose-5-P
Ribulose-5-P
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Xylulose-5-P
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Facultatively Aerobic (facultatively anaerobic): if oxygen is present they carry aerobic respiration but when oxygen is absent or insufficient they switch to anaerobic respiration
Some can live indefinitely anaerobically
Animals and plant tissue can only live like this for a short time
Respiration of Lipids
Lipids being broken down into glycerol and three fatty acids (triglycerides) or glycerol phosphate and two fatty acids (phospholipids)
Fatty acids are broken down into two-carbon units -acetyl CoA- by process of (Beta) oxidation And either cytosol or microbodies called glyoxysomes
Acetyl CoA
Carbohydrates
Catabolism: further respiration
The remaining compounds in the Respiration of Lipids can enter the citric acid cycle and be further respired
One Acetyl CoA Formed, one FAD is reduced to FADH2 and one NAD is converted to NADH
Glycerol
Photorespiration
RuBP carboxylase adds Oxygen rather than carbon dioxide to ribulose-1,5-biphosphate
One molecule of phosphoglycolate
Dephosphorylated to glycolate and transported to microbodies called peroxisomes
Glycolate can be converted to glycerine in the peroxisomes
Glycerine may be transferred to the mitochondria, where it is respired to carbon dioxide and water with no conservation of energy and either ATP or NADH
Environmental and Internal Factors
Temperature
In most tissues, an increase in temperature of 10°C in the range of 5°C and 25°C doubles the respiration rates
A magnitude of increase seen in many enzyme-mediated reactions
Below 5°C respiration decreases greatly
Above 30°C, respiration still increases, but not as rapidly
Above 40°C, respiration like many other processes, slows greatly, probably because of enzyme damage or disruption of organelle membranes
Lack of Oxygen
During daylight hours,chlorophyllous tissues and organs produce oxygen
At night, oxygen is not produced but it can diffuse into large intercellular spaces of the plant if it can penetrate the closed stoma
Oxygen availability is much more variable for roots;in well drained soil. During and after a rain, soil air is displaced by water
The roots have lesser amounts of oxygen which is hypoxia
Anaerobic respiration allows roots to survive for a short period of time
If continually flooding roots of almost any species die
If continually flooding and the roots survives it does so by oxygen diffusion from the stem through aerenchyma channels in the cortex
The roots have no oxygen which is anoxia
Internal Regulation
Metabolic controls
Active metabolism-High level of aerobic respiration
Meristematic cells produce ribose, nearby cells may have a much lower respiration rate
3-Phosphoglyceraldehyde
Anabolism
(Crosslink)
