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SUSS POL 101 STUDY UNIT 5 INTRODUCING COMPARATIVE POLITICS (Comparing…
SUSS POL 101
STUDY UNIT 5 INTRODUCING
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Comparing Politics: Why, How, and What
Why engage in comparative politics
Evidence for 'why' questions
Comparativists compare political phenomena in different countries to provide evidence for answering the “why” questions of politics
I.e. Does it occur everywhere.
Lack of experimental control
Political science cannot use real “control” and “experiment” groups like other social sciences (i.e. psychology) because political scientists cannot control the political world
To make correlations
comparativists compare countries or phenomena within countries to make correlations between particular variables
Source for regularities
Search for regularities
When you employ the comparative method, you are looking for regularities, irregularities or anomalies
This is in line with the scientific method.
Examples of questions in comparative politics
Why do some countries have socialist parties and others do not? (absence of strong trade unions?)
Why do some countries have open immigration policies and others do not?
(civic vs. ethnic conception of the nation?)
Why has federalism succeeded in some countries and not in others?
(transfer payments? Geographical dispersion of ethnic groups?)
How to Compare
Comparativists observe the extent to which countries differ or are similar, Then they ask why (i.e. under what circumstances do they differ)
This leads to a search for a
theory that explains the variation
Mill's Method
Used to assist in
pinpointing the cause
, or at least potential cause (independent variable), of the phenomenon
or political outcome
(dependent variable) under study.
X (independent variable) = cause
Y (dependent variable) = outcome
Key point,
find out the relationship
Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD)
In MSSD,
cases of a high level of similarity are chosen
, except for a glaring difference in terms of the dependent variable (political outcome).
By choosing cases that have many common variables/features, the researcher can find out exactly which variable is the one that caused the glaring difference in the outcome.
I.e.
most features
such as political composition (dominant ideologies, political institutions, public policies, political economies) are
similar BUT outcomes are different.
Example
IV Similarity - One-party dominant system
DV is different - High economic growth low economic growth.
Malaysia and Singapore
Similarity: Demographic Makeup, Hybrid regime, History.
The difference: Affirmative Action vs meritocracy, Natural resources. Resource allocation.
Why is Singapore more advanced economically
(Integrity of Political institution - No Corruption in Singapore/ Electoral system is transparent and robust/ Cronyism)
Political culture in Singapore and Malaysia is different. (In Singapore, people are more law-abiding)
Political value is different (Singapore more to meritocracy)
North Korea and South Korea
Similarity: Homogeneous society, Location,
Difference: Economy, Democratic vs Communism
UK, US, Canada
Similarity: Democratic, quick to industrialised
Difference: Gun control law (the US allows for gun-control due to its independence based on revolution. )
Most Different Systems Designs (MDSD).
In MDSD, cases with a
high level of difference are chosen
. This is except for the dependent variable that is the same across all of the cases. It is thus assumed that any similarity found within the independent variables (other social and political factors) can explain the similarity in the dependent variable
Example
IV Different - Political Composition ( Authoritarian or Democratic)
DV is the same - Economic Growth
Swiss vs India
Difference - Political economy (rich vs poor)/ Developing vs developed.
Similarity - Democratic (due to cross-cutting cleavages. Requires adequate representative)
What is compared in comparative
Global North and Global South (Common exam qn)
Global North and Global South reflect the level of development that the countries have attained (previously referred to as developed or First World vs developing or Third World).
Global North - example US, Canada, Japan, the four Asian tigers
Global south - for example, Latin America, Africa
If it comes out in the exam
Explain what comes under Global North and Global South
Explain what issues are experienced/ challenges faced by global north and global south
Use the Modernisation vs dependancy(or world systems theor)
Example
start with modernisation theory,
critique/ evaluation of modernisation theory
Go on to dependancy theory
issues with the global north and the global south
Challenges to the global north
Populism
Trust in the Political System (lack of faith in the political system has resulted in the
rise of populism
and extra-parliamentary forms of politics, i.e. protest politics due to representative issues)
Immigration
The
Immigration
Debate (“cosmopolitans” and “multiculturalists” vs. “nationalists” and “rights” vs. “gifts”).
Inequality
Material Well-Being and Distribution (the growth of
socio-economic inequality
has led to demands for greater economic justice. GINI Coefficient. Income justice/ mobility).
Value Conflicts (there has been a growth in
“culture wars”
between those with liberal/progressive and conservative/traditional values).
Challenges to the global south
Economic Underdevelopment
poverty persists and economic development remains highly uneven within many societies – this has
severe consequences for the countries’ politics
Political Underdevelopment
- lack of economic development leads to political decay; lack of state capabilities means
various demands
of the population, including the distribution of wealth and other public goods, are
not met
; political institutionalisation suffers, the potential for lack of government/state legitimacy and
political violence
/upheaval)
Some pointers that the global can learn from the global south
Corruption
- the use of
public resources for private gain
; damages the credibility of public institutions and wastes vital public resources; abuse of public duties for personal benefit is more likely to happen in countries
where salaries are low and in situations where the rule of law is weak
Development indicators
What is development: Two components:
Socio-Political Development and Economical Development
Can measure developments through GDP/ PPP.
Indicators/ variables of development also include:
Gender equality (equal access to opportunities)
Freedom in both public realm.
Access to human security (food and shelter)
Strength of political institution (i.e. low corruption rates) which leads to stability
GINI Coefficient and inequality gap
Environment sustainability
Economic self-suficiency
GDP growth as an indicator = Developed?
GDP growth, is not evenly distributed.
Social and Economic Development
One major debate within the comparative politics literature has revolved around the question of why some countries have achieved a higher level of development than others.
There are two theories.
Modernisation Theory
The process of development occurs alongside marked shifts in a county’s social and economic structures.
Societies shift away from traditional social, economic, and political values before/as they take off economically - pass the economic threshold to experience post-materialism.
Examples of necessary changes include embracing science, the belief in achievement
Critique of Modernisation Theory
based on the trajectory of development experienced by the Western countries, thus indirectly promoting Westernisation (or promotes belief that Western route is the most optimal.
Not reflected in asian development. (i.e. taiwan, singapore)
Worl systems theory or Dependency Theory
Founded by Immanuel
Wallerstein
Rooted in Marxist political economy: those countries/areas which are the least developed are the ones that have been most heavily connected to (exploited by) imperialist powers or core countries. This is largely due to the periphery's inability to extract or refine its own resources as a result of underdeveloped institutions and social structures.
"Core” countries such as the United States and those of the global North who are developed, exploits these resources from the “peripheral” countries by introducing and establish economic structures (i.e. MNCs/ factories) which allow for the systematic extraction and exploitation of 3rd world resources. In establishing these economic structures, the core countries (as a secondary effect) alleviates unemployment issues faced by the 3rd world countries.
This then creates a relationship of dependence and exploitation.
This has left impoverished countries of the Global South continually dependent on the Global North
Political development
Political development is typically measured by the extent to which a political system exhibits relatively high levels on the following four dimensions
The argument is that
political development is a prerequisite for socio-economic development
4 dimensions of Political development
Specialized political structures
Most key political functions are fulfilled by complex,
organized political institutions
such as legislatures, executives, political parties, and political interest groups.
The actions of these institutions are generally guided by bureaucratic principles such as rationality and efficiency
political institutionalization
The citizens value and support the
political structures
and processes, which become more
stable
, and the citizens fulfil their roles of conventional political participation as voters, foot soldiers, and so on
The concentration of power in the state
Most power and authority are
centralized in a single state-level governmental system
, and traditional sources of political authority weaken.
The
citizens agree
that the state has the right to make and enforce public policies,
and they accept those decisions as authoritative
.
The formal–legal aspects of government (e.g., constitutions and laws) are well established.
Extensive capabilities of the state.
The
political system
becomes better able to generate support, to respond to demands from its population, and to control the environment.
Overall, its organization is more
stable and coherent
, its structures are more
efficient
, and its actions more effectively serve its goals and objectives.
In a capabilities analysis, a
political system achieves a higher level
of political development when it
improves its effectiveness on any of five key capabilities
Responsive
: making decisions and policies that react to demands for value allocations
Extractive
: using human and material resources from the environment
Symbolic:
manipulating images and meanings and distributing nonmaterial
rewards and values
Regulative:
controlling individual and group actions
distributive:
allocating values through institutionalized structures and procedures
two dominant models of political development
Model of Development I (pg 273)
From this perspective, the elements of
modernization
(i.e. Economic development, urbanization, social mobilization) provide the material and human resources that
lead to
the emergence of a
developed political system
political development
as primarily
a response to economic and social change
this concept is based on the historical analyses of political systems that developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
Model of Development II (pg 273)
the
political system
is the crucial force that
causes development
of the social and economic systems
emphasizes the central role of politics and political choice as drivers of development (i.e. economic and social development which in turn leads to modernization)
Political decay
A significant decline in the capabilities of the political system and its levels of political institutionalisation, especially in its capacity to maintain order.
Evidence of political decay includes high levels of civil disorder (strikes, violent crime, riots, rebellion).
If this happens, there can be
• A crackdown on disorder.
• The appearance of a charismatic, authoritarian leader.
• A military coup.
• A popular uprising/revolution.
Political Development as Democratization
Democratization can be understood as those changes that deepen and consolidate democratic processes
it is certainly valid to conclude that one
highly desirable outcome of political development is a system that is democratic.
Waves of democratisation
Samuel Huntington (1991) suggests that there have been three long waves of democratization among modern states
Third Wave
- mid-70s to early-90s; fall of fascist/military regimes in Europe and Latin America and one-party communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
Second Wave
- after WWII; former European colonies in Asia and Africa became independent democratic states.
First Wave
- from 1820s to 1920s as a result of the spread of modern political ideas (liberalism, socialism); mostly in the West.
Why do countries become/stay democracies
Economy/Structures
- economic growth, rise of a middle class who challenges the traditional political structure, incorporation of the working class into mainstream politics.
Political Culture
- high levels of civic participation and social trust, self-expression values
External Forces
- pressure to democratise emanates from the outside world (large military/economic powers in the international system such as USA and EU encourage democratisation)
Political Leaders
- leaders committed to democratic institutions, processes, and norms can bring about more democratic policy, including through constitutional change (but what about irannian revolution)
Populism
An
anti-elite
and anti-establishment sentiment and discourse among a group of people in society who claim to embody “
the people
” against what are thought to be an unresponsive and out-of-touch
elite.
• Society and politics understood as being divided
between “the people”
who are left out of the political process
and the elite
who dominate it.
The populist politician
attempts to position him or herself as being
in touch with the people
’s problems and thus their best political representative.
Features of a populist politician
Populists often
rely on charismatic
rather than rational-bureaucratic authority;
they draw their
authority from their supporters trust
and not always the laws or constitutions;
as a result populists often use tactics that
appeal to popular rather than constitutional legitimacy
(ex. the use of referenda to become “president for life”)
Left and right populist
• Left populism
- politician claims to
represent
the workers or
the poor
Example
• Right populism
- politician claims to represent the mainstream majority against various minority groups,
ex. immigrants, religious minorities, sexual minorities, etc
example