Thinking
Concepts
Biopsychology in thinking
Definition: Mental groupings of similar objects, ideas or experiences.
Natural Concepts
Intuition
Cognition
Artificial Concepts
Definition: Refers to thinking processes, including reasoning, imagining, judging, deciding, remembering, problem-solving and interpreting.
Definition: Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts.
Declarative memory (LTM; Fact memory)
Concept Hierarchies ( General to Specific)
imprecise mental categories that develop out of our everyday experiences in the world.
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Cognitive and imagery Maps
A cognitive representation of physical space
PET scans, MRI & fMRI
Visual imagery activates visual cortex
Limbic system : Reward system
Auditory memories engage auditory cortex
Prefrontal cortex: Thinking, reasoning and planning
- Understanding the Context (the meaning of the situation)
- Responding to a specific stimulus in the situation
- Keeping track of the episode ( the situation in which we find ourselves)
prefrontal cortex+ emotional “hunches” into our decisions in the form of information about past experiences, as well as our needs, desires, and emotions
1) Context 2) Time available 3) our own expertise
Schemas & Scripts
Cluster of related information that represents ideas or concepts in semantic memory. Mental structure or program that guides.
Provide a context for interpretation
Helpful in making quick decisions ( not necessary good decisions)
Making inferences
New information to relate to existing knowledge in stored schemas
Scrips as event Schemas
Knowledge about the events, objects and actions expected in a particular situation
Conflict can arise, however, when your script differs from that of someone else in your world.
feel comfortable with others who share our scripts because we see things the same way and know what to expect
Problem Solving
Strategy for problem
Algorithms
Heuristics
rules of thumb: cut through the confusion of complicated situations.
Follow a step-by-step procedure that leads directly from the problem to the solution.
A. Working Backward
Breaking a big problem into smaller problems
Searching for Analogies
Obstacles
Mental Set
Functional Fixedness
the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem
Self-imposed limitations
Operant conditioning
Judging and making decisions
System 1 : One involves our intuitive thought processes ( Common sense) Intuition
System 2 : Charged with taking conscious control (Rational decisions)
Anchoring Bias:initial piece of information offered when making decisions
Representative Bias: Placing into categories
Hindsight bias: "I knew-it-all-along effect"
Availability Bias:reflects our tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind
Confirmation bias : Ignore or find fault with information; Seeking & remembering information with which he agrees
Tyranny of choice
Creative people
Cognitive disinhibition: A propensity to allow seemingly irrelevant information access to attention and consciousness
- Characteristics of creative people
Willingness to restructure the problem
Preference for complexity
Intense interest in a problem
A need for stimulating interaction
Independence
- Well-developed knowledge/ aptitude in the field
IQ Test
Binet-Simon Test
Stanford-Binet test
Flynn Effect
gradual increase in IQ
Psychometric Theories of intelligence
Spearman's g Factor
Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
fluid intelligence ( Complex relationships and solve problems)
Crystallized intelligence (ability to store and retrieve information from semantic memory)
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Creative Intelligence
Practical Intelligence
Analytical Intelligence
Wisdom
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Musical intelligence
Spatial Intelligence
Bodily kinaesthetic intelligence
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Naturalistic intelligence
Linguistic Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence
IQ differences among groups
Heredity
Environment
nurturing environment was associated with memory
Stimulating environment was strongly associated with language ability
Heritability
Definition: The amount of trait variation within a group raised under the same conditions, which can be attributed to genetic differences. Heritability tells us nothing about between-group differences.
Social class & IQ
Different belief systems
Growth mindset
Fixed mindset
Stereotype Threats
