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Foundations of the Environment (ENV102) (Pollution and the Environment…
Foundations of the Environment (ENV102)
water and the environment
hydrological cycle/ surface water
3 types of movement
surface flow (runoff) (33%)
types of runoff
Baseflow (35%)
delayed flow, often continual in all conditions
deep surface flow
quickflow/rapid stream flow (11%)
e.g rain
directed, often via channels
via overland travel or shallow sub-surface
through-flow (groundwater movement)
few m of dry soil (surface) before saturated soil (deeper)
often water will sit on top of heavy soils (e.g clay)
easier to move across than vertically
water slowly oozes upwards & flows across
some sands are hydrophobic (e.g. Bassendean)
important to wetlands
terminology
aquifer
a body of underground water
confined
occur in sediments and soils
vertically
unconfined
occur in sandy soils
vertically and horizontally
capillary fringe
water flows upwards from zone of saturation
since groundwater levels drop in dry months, this is important for plants in summer
recharge
equation
storage = recharge - discharge
effected by
adjacent aquifer discharge
humans
discharge
adjacent aquifer leak
evaporation
human use
water catchments
describes flow and yield of water
e.g from the runnoff that meets streams
water balance is calculated for each catchment
Groundwater + Storage = Precipitation - Waterflow - evaporation
units = volume/time e.g: mm/day or M(cubed)/sec
rivers & wetlands
wetlands
deep lakes
origin
glaciation
young
clear, rocky and cold.
threats: climate change & pollution
tectonics
very old
threats: climate change, pollution & land-use change
spatially complex
volcanic
young to very old
steep sides & due to isolation: low nutrients, small catchment and limited fauna
extends beyond the euphoric zone
zones
epiliminion
warm/ bright & oxygenated. most life.
thermoceline
rapid temp' change. few life.
hydolumination
very dark and cold. almost no life
sediment
very dark and cold. few life (e.g worms)
shallow lakes
euphoric zone extends to bed
potential for entire lake volume to be productive (photosynthesis possible)
although there is often a competition between algae and plants for light
origin
riverine
types
floodplain
billabong
often intermittent
often experience fluctuations in water quality extremes
e.g PH, Salinity, DO
threat: changes to river flow regime
coastal
threats: climate change, sea level rise & drop in groundwater table
formed by an interaction between coast-building processes and river flow regime causing the formation of sandbars
often very young
SCP is an example (classified as a coastal formed, ground water fed chain of wetlands)
zones
epilimnion
sediment
threats
eutrophication
salinisation
groundwater uses
river flow reliance
urbanization/ pollution
solutions
controlling catchment/land use
re-veg'
limit groundwater extraction
processes
macrophytes
often aesthetically pleasing
helps in water clarity & quality (esp. DO)
extensive habitat for fauna
some have active inhibition of algae
alternate state: phytoplankton dominated
increase turbidity
no nutrient storage
little refuge for animals
Chironomids
rapid lifecycle: often peaks with eutrophication
attracted to light & swarming behavior & can cause respiratory issues if inhaled = health risk
stratification and annoxia
re-suspension (wind action)
management
groundwater management
reveg
nutrient and salinity monitoring
control mozzies and midges
control draining
maintain nearby rivers
rivers
threats
headwaters
sedimentation
salinization
urbanization
pollution
flow regulation & groundwater extraction
impacts whole river/ river no longer follows natural regime
e.g can be caused by damming a river
clearing
lowlands
alienation from floodplain
loss of a floodplain
"black water"
eutrophication
urbanization
flow
headwater
shallow
fast
waterfalls frequent
obligates
facultative
avoider
seasonal/ intermittent
narrow
steep
Lowland rivers
deep
wide
many channeled
link to floodplains
timing and quantity of flow more important than speed
Depositional & accumulative
seasonal: well mixed and well connected in wet season. dry season stratified and fragmented due to temperature and salinity
often have high turbidity:
phytoplankton
receives nutrients from upstream
receives deposit from upstream (Allochthonous). e.g litter and macrophytes
often permanent
high invertebrate diversity (life-cycle dependence)
dams
dam types
farm
many small damns, stopping small streams
conservation streams
some goes into a park, some extracted for human use
weir
raise and lower the water level
industrial
large scale alterations to stream flow
hydro-electric
pumped so fast nothing can survive
impacts on fauna
less oxygen
less food
barrier to spawning grounds
vegetation
riparian zone
change ecology
drops nuts/leaves- contributes carbon
detrital food
often specialized
controls light level and temperature
if cleared this can cause a section to become impassible
debris acts as shelter/ habitat
fringing vegetation effected by
fire regime
herbicides
weeds
urbanization
floodplains
productive
spatially & temporally complex
residents can be both migratory or permanent
e.g waterbirds and reptiles
accumulate sediment
retain nutrients
"flood-pulse": causes a distribution of materials
"Black Water"
if a flood-pulse or flow is no longer able to move organic matter: can cause a build up
bacteria naturally break down sedimentation and detritus. But extract oxygen from the water to do so
if the water is too still to bring in much oxygen triggers an anaerobic bacterial take-over
animals no longer can survive in de-oxygenated water. water often changes colour to black.
river management plans
restore flow
reveg'
catchment management & pollution
removal of barriers- enable fish movement
comparison
sources
wetland: multiple: groundwater, runoff and river feed
river: direction of river flow
connections
wetland: catchment (runoff pools at these sites)
river: riparian and catchment zone
ecosystem function
wetland: depth dependant
river: position in catchment
biodiversity
wetland: habitat complexity
river: plant communities
categories
wetland: shallow wetland, vs deep lake
upland vs lowland river
water quality
management
prevent water usage crisis in ever growing demand
e.g groundwater protection & desalination
issues
contamination
sustainable yield factors
mindfulness of wetlands (groundwater dependent wetlands)
saline water intrusion (often from estuaries)
acidification (acid sulfate soils)
costs of pumping and recovery
efficiency
match water quality to uses
although there are health considerations
climate resilient gardens
but need to be mindful of ecology and aim to preserve
efficient cities- landscape planning integrations
energy use and type
how?
efficiency
(equipment & process)
requirement= number of people and water use/person
alternate supply
e.g private bore
Administration
e.g only water at certain times of day/week
water supply considerations
economics
supply
quality ecology
uses
carbon cycle
plumbing
increasing supply
new sources
difficult: most streams saline & more streams becoming so w/ clearing
desalination can be helped by restoring catchments (e.g reveg')
increase capacity/quality of existing dams
restoration of catchments helps here too
re-allocation of water
buying and selling water entitlements (less WA relevant)
selling excess water after an increase in efficiency (e.g harvey)
new technology
desalination
can be put back into aquifers until usable quality
water recycling
gardens and industry. (note health concerns).
future: cloud seeding
placing heavier particles than water to encourage rain
reduce evaporation from dams
chemical barriers
floating barriers
e.g injection into groundwater or giant pool covers
measurements & monitoring
colour
clear vs strained
particles
yellow/green= algae
red/brown= soil or tannins
measured by spectrophotometre
Dissolved organic material: tannins and humic acid
from surrounding vegetation
has antiseptic properties
conductivity
measures salinity
measures the electrical current, more salt the higher the charge
measured via a salinity meter
salt builds up over time
temp'
measured by a thermometer or sometimes built into a PH metre
effects DO
measured in field
nutrients (N&P)
Phosphate (PO4)
mostly from fertilizers
Nitrate (NO3)
aerobic. from fertilizers
Ammonium (NH4)
low in oxygen/ anaerobic. From decomposition of organic matter
measured using a spectrophotometers
Turbidity
clear or murky
from quantity of suspended particles
if too high can reduce light penetration (photosynthesis) and clog filtering mechanisms (filter-feeders and gills)
depth dependent
measured by a turbidity meter
caused by erosion or decaying matter
DO
dependent on temp and salinity
hot= low DO & saline= low DO
important for respiration
measured in field
why? avoids adding oxygen into a sample via movement or becoming anerobic due to bacteria present in sample. also temp changes when sample is moved (which effects reading)
increased by physical mixing (e.g air) and photosynthesis. removed by respiration of animals and bacteria
PH
indicates soil type & materials in the water column
read by PH metre
Chlorophyll A
the photosynthetic pigment of algae
extracted using acetone for 24 hrs
high concentrations can indicate an algal bloom
coastal environments
bathymetry
underwater topography
depth of ocean floor
zones
bathyl zone
top
abyssal
deep. little light
hadal zone
deepest. no light
salinity variations
near estuaries= less
near equator and ice
ocean circulation
deep water (thermohaline)
based on water densities
shallow water (geostrotic)
based on wind and sea height
currents
australian currents
leewin current
an anomaly between India and Australia. warm current with low salinity and low nutrients. odd because it flows N-->S rather than the usual S-->N
Indonesia through-flow
antarctic circumpolar current
east Australian current
can occur seasonally
ocean provinces
tropical
sub-tropical
temperate
transitional
nerific species= a sp. that only occurs on the coastal shelf
coastal habitat is named after characteristic features (e.g. substrate of dominant plant/animal)
sandy beach
range of biota. dynamic (nothing for a plant to attach to)
rocky shore
often has the distinct zonations (seaweeds to barnacles etc)
estuaries
see notes
mangroves
forms nurseries. create creeks. many pnumatephores (arial roots)
sea-grass bed
grazing animals and those that hide within it
rocky reef
contains animals like abalone
kelp bed
more temperate than tropical. long fronds with holdfasts.
coral reefs
different types of coral
soft sediment
many burrowers and deposit feeders
Estuaries
definition
1) partially enclose coastal body of water
2) either permanently or periodically open
3) within which, there is variation in salinity
4) due to the mixing of sea water and fresh water
water is stratified by salinity
freshwater layered on top of the sea water. (sea water heavier due to solute concentration)
rarely mixed
water movement
river flow
fresh water
nutrients
sediment
biota
tides
saline water
sediment ( can form sand banks)
biota
isolation of an estuary
permanently open
permanently closed
forms coastal lakes
normally closed
flood will temporarily re-open
seasonally open/closed
rain forces mouth open
Human Uses
high productivity
feeding grounds of birds and fish
nursery for fish and crustaceans
accessible food for humans
sheltered water for ports
aesthetics (housing)
flat (useful for industry)
disposal of waste
aquaculture
management
needs monitoring
is the product of land, river and sea. needs all elements to be managed
Pollution and the Environment
water pollution/water management
climate change
no one technology to solve (Princeton wedge)
solid waste management
air pollution
ambient
indoor
Atmosphere
weather vs climate
weather is what you expect, climate is what you get
weather
seasonal
based on
initial condition
relies on observation
requires accurate statistics
predicting weather is to guess a single difficult event
short duration
climate
shifts with the season
based on
natural climate variability
volcanic emissions
co2 emissions
long term
predicting climate gives an approximate range
Coriolis
3 distinct air circulation
polar cells (at poles)
ferret cells (temperate zones)
Hadley cells (equator)
oceans
density
tempreture (cooler=denser)
salinity (saltier = denser)
density = mass/ volume (thermohaline circulation)
walker circulation/ trade winds
el nino - la nina
el nino year/event
walker circulation is weak
high pressure south, lower pressure north, SOI negative
in eastern Australia can cause dry averages
la nina year/event
causes strong wind currents
in a weather graph, a straight line with a hot temperature may indicate a la nina
low pressure southwards, high pressure north- SOI +ve
in east Australia can cause flooding
note that el nino/la nina are anomalies normal circulation is known as an 'inactive' phase
SOI= southern oscillation index
typically push from south america to Australia
Sudden Stratospheric Warming
another anomaly in the N hemisphere
marine pollution
synergy of pollution
Environmental Landscapes
vegetation disturbance
soils and landscapes
Swan Coastal Plain
Vegetation
Environmental Management
GIS spacial data tools
carbon mitigation
human enjoyment
management of protected areas
environmental education
environmental restoration