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MM Course, Genetics (Mutations (causes (transposon (contains proteins (not…

- - - - too effective
      - too efficient
  - - - exon
        
        gene code for
        
        nonfunctioning protein
      - point mutations
        
        small
      - if two genes
        
        maybe no effect
  - - - contains proteins
        
        not related to transposition
      - carriesvary in severity
      - long
    - - enzymes
      - splicing DNA
    - - causes mutations
- - - - many genes of same type
  - - - double recessive
    - - both traits effective
  - - - plant self-pollinating
  - - - recessive
        
        less effective
      - dominant
        
        more effective
    - - neither parental trait dominates
    - - to different alleles for gene
    - - two identical alleles
        
        each parent
    - - parental generation
        
        F2
        
        interbreeding
        
        flowers
        
        offspring
        
        f
      - single character
- - - - similar to wild type
    - - change in chromosome number
    - - more than two sets of chromosomes
  - - - can kill
  - - - from mother only
    - - from bother parents
- - - - "space" between recombination
    - - parental type chromosomes
        
        first two
      - crossing-over homologous
    - - genes linked
        
        no independent assortment
  - - - on same alleles
      - two gnes far apart
  - - - independent movement of alleles
- - - - figure out phenotype
      - thousands of prgeny
- - - - CO2 matches respiratory loss
    - - light intensity
    - - colors or wavelengths in sun
  - - - action spectrum
        
        powering a photochemical process
      - absorption spectrum
        
        most strongly absorbed
      - Gamma Rays, X-Rays, UV Rays, etc
        
        measure in quantum (photon)
        
        unactivated electron
        
        ground state
        
        activated electron
        
        excited state
        
        long wavelength
        
        low frequency
        
        Short wavelength
        
        high frequency
- - - - Starch
    - - sugar glucose and disaccharide sucrose
        
        Synthesis of Polysaccharides
        
        gluceogenesis
        
        PGAL converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate
        
        condensed to fructose-1,6-biphosphate
        
        loses phosphate= frucose-6-phophate
        
        1 more item...
    - - ATP and NADPH
    - - build larger, complex molecules
  - - - reaction center P680
        
        to electron transport chain #
        
        plastocyanin become oxidized
        
        cytochrome b6/f donates an electron
        
        plastoquinone donates an electron
        
        Q carrier donates electron
        
        phaeophytin donates electron
  - - - reaction center 9700
        
        ferredocin-NADPH+ reductase
        
        reduces NAD+
        
        ferredoxin
        
        absorbs electron
- - - - ATP synthesized
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        light energy
        
        substrate-level phorphorylation
        
        high energy phosphate groups
        
        oxidation phosphorylation
        
        respiration
  - - - reduced
        
        by reducing agents
    - - oxidixed
        
        by oxidatihng agents
        
        oxidation reaction
  - - - Cofactor: heme
        
        holds reaction
    - - transport electrons short distance
    - - transport electrons metal atom
- - - - energy-wasting process
        
        PEP Carboxylase
  - - - Chlorophyll b
        
        absorb blue ans violet
      - Chlorophyll a
        
        absorb some red and blue
      - packed into granule
        
        grana
        
        frets
        
        liquid surrounding called stroma
        
        surrounded by thylakoid lumen
        
        photosynthetic unit
      - absorb quanta
        
        activate electron
        
        excited state
      - release light #
        
        fluorescence
      - accessory pigments
        
        stronger wavelengths chlorophyll a
        
        through resonance
- - - - reduced to malate or acids
        
        occurs at night
        
        not as efficient
- - - - acceptor molecule (RuBP)+ CO2
        
        breaks to form 3-phosphoglycerate
- - - - addition of
        
        advantageous bundles
      - increases
        
        width
  - - - Bauhinia
        
        flexible advantage
        
        stem grows
        
        same way in 2
        
        out 2 ways
    - - exterior
      - protection
    - - increase storage parenchyma
- - - - surface color change
        
        green to tan
  - - - permeable bark
        
        intercellular spaces
        
        diffusion path
        
        round cells
      - cork
      - cork
        
        blocks oxygen absorption
        
        bad respiration
  - - - inside
  - - - between
        
        inner cork
        
        vascular cambium #
      - secondary phloem
    - - outer cell
        
        cork cell
      - inner cell
        
        remains cork cambium
      - phellogen
        
        cuboidal cells
    - - water
    - - pathogens
- - - - sieve tubes
      - stem and root
- - - - nonvertical trunks
      - gravitational
        
        lateral strain
  - - - ring porous
        
        vessels restricted to
        
        early wood
      - diffuse porous
        
        vessels throughout
      - heavy fibers
    - - new vessels
        
        not as many
      - large cuticle
    - - wide vessels
  - - - not many fibers
    - - many fibers
    - - fibers
        
        strength and flecibility
      - conduction of water
  - - - protoplasts
      - seconary wall
      - horizontal rectangular cells
    - - radial system
        
        ray initials
        
        precumbant cells
        
        no direct contact
        
        upright cells
        
        direct contact
        
        ONLY parenchyma cells
        
        dormant periods
        
        store carbohydrates
      - axial system
        
        fusiform initals
  - - - inteerior
        
        wood
- - - - fusiform
        
        irregular
        
        nonstoried cambium
        
        regular horizontal rows
        
        storied cambium
      - ray
        
        grouped
        
        verticle
        
        multiserate
        
        many cells wide
        
        biserate
        
        2 cells wide
        
        uniserate
        
        1 cell wide
        
        short rows
  - - - cells
        
        interfascicular cambium
        
        mitosis
        
        mature
        
        divide not mature
        
        fascicular cambium
        
        no cell cycle
    - - cells
        
        conducting tissue
    - - ray initials #
        
        two cells
        
        one differentiates into
        
        xylem/phloem parenchyma
        
        storage
        
        cuboidal
        
        short
      - fusiform initials
        
        anticlinal wall
        
        perpendicular
        
        division
        
        two elongate cells
        
        periclinal wall
        
        parallel
        
        long, tapered cells
        
        wood cells
        
        thin primary walls
      - secondary body plant
      - meristem
- - - - algae decompose
      - uses large oxygen amounts
      - degrade rivers
  - - - distributes water
      - pulls water
    - - dwarf trees
    - - water loss pull
      - from wall
      - cannot reach equillibrium
        
        lose more water
- - - - cannot leave
  - - - cross-secion area phloem
  - - - nutrients
  - - - P-protein Plug
        
        too large to pass
        
        carried sieve area
        
        tangled mass
- - - - all solute pass
    - - isolation barriers
      - NOTHING passes
    - - ONLY certain substances
      - lipid/protein membranes
      - hydrophobic molecules
        
        diffuses easily
      - polar, hydrophillic molecules
        
        selectively permeable
        
        special chemicals
      - water
        
        polar
        
        passes easily
        
        aquaporins
        
        protein channels
      - molecular pumps
        
        membrane bound
        
        use ATP
        
        force molecules through
  - - - vesicles
- - - - closed at night
        
        K+ pumped out
        
        lose water
        
        shrunken
        
        flaccid
      - open during day
        
        cell absorb K+
        
        impermeable wall
        
        water potential negative
        
        extra water
        
        bend and push
        
        open
        
        equillibrium when done
        
        turgid
  - - - molecular pumps
- - - - unavoidable water loss
      - through stomata
    - - humidity at 50%
    - - water loss
      - directly through cuticle
  - - - small
      - short life cycle
    - - succulent
      - water-storage cells
    - - changes with habitat
      - body water content
    - - broken water colum
      - caused by large
        
        hydrogen bonding break
      - embolism
        
        space between
  - - - water stress
        
        abscisic acid release
      - close
      - CAM
        
        adapts by
        
        open at night
- - - - cytokenisis
      - mitosis
  - - - metaxylem
    - - protoxylem
- - - - pith
        
        region of parenchyma
    - - primary phloem
        
        mixed with
        
        companion cells
        
        sieve elements
      - primary xylem
        
        primary plant body
      - collateral
        
        parallel
  - - - plasmodesmata #
        
        1 micrometer
        
        sieve pores
        
        groups
        
        sieve areas
      - sieve element
        
        cells degenerate
        
        stay alive
        
        sieve tube members
        
        controlled by companion cells
        
        load sugars in and out
        
        sieve
        
        sieve cells
        
        associate with conducting cells
        
        albuminous cells
        
        small form
        
        sieve tubes
        
        many form
        
        sieve plates
        
        stacking cells
        
        large is better
      - only primary walls
      - sugar and minerals
    - - vessel
        
        vessel elements
        
        absorb water
      - pit membrane
        
        set primary wall
      - border
        
        extra wall
      - circular bordered pit
        
        overarches pit chamber
        
        cross-section
      - scalariform thickening
        
        extra strength
      - helical thickenings
        
        secondary wall depositining
      - tracheary element #
        
        annular thickening
        
        set of rings
        
        secondary wall
        
        vessel elements
        
        vessels
        
        tracheids
      - water and minerals
  - - - animal eat/step
    - - elongated epithelial cells
  - - - guard cell
        
        stoma
      - hole
    - - pairs
    - - build uf cutin
        
        cutin
        
        wax
        
        when cuticle inefficient
    - - fatty substance
        
        wall impermeable to water
- - - - horizontal
  - - - bamboo
  - - - thin leaves
        
        thick stem
  - - - thick leaves
        
        onions
  - - - vines
  - - - tip of tem
    - - bud
        
        bud scales
        
        around bud
        
        flowers
    - - before leaf attach
    - - between nodes
    - - leaves
- - - - Glandular Cells
        
        transfer out
        
        metabolic tranformatio product
        
        Transport in
        
        sugar and minerals
        
        secrete
        
        oils
        
        resins
        
        fragrances
        
        nectar
      - Cholerenchyma #
        
        photosynthesis
    - - soft part of plants
        
        most common tissue
  - - - nutrients
        
        pit
        
        pit-pairs
    - - short scleroids
        
        elastic
      - long fibers
        
        storage
        
        dead at mature
        
        elastic
    - - vessel elements #
        
        short
        
        dead at maturation
      - tracheals
        
        long
        
        dead at maturation
    - - protect from
        
        wind
        
        animals
        
        snow
    - - thick secondary wall
- - - - simple xylem
      - parenchyma cortex
      - cuticle
      - equal size/vigor
    - - seed plants
        
        has siphonostele
      - siphonostele
        
        pith in center
        
        type of steele
      - exarch postele
        
        protoxyler in outer edges
        
        metaxylem in center
      - endarch prostele
        
        metaxylem on outer edge
        
        protoxylem on center
      - prostele
        
        no pith
        
        center solid ma of xylem
  - - - increased photosynthetic area
      - outgrowths
- - - - 4cm long enations
      - microphylls
        
        "leaves"
    - - clustered sprorangia
        
        protection
        
        cones
        
        strobili
    - - ligule
        
        distnguishes salaginellas from lycopodiums
        
        small flap of tissue
- - - - small, outward protrusion
    - - outer cells
        
        sporangium wall
      - inner cells
        
        sporangium tissue
      - multilayered plane
    - - diverges from siphonostele
    - - vascular cylinder
      - small segment
    - - most familiar
      - more than 12,00
  - - - Pertica
      - psilophyton
      - trimerophyton
    - - single main trunk
    - - one stem more vigorous
  - - - megapyllus plants
    - - leaves evolved from plant systems
    - - telomes
        
        ultimate twigs
      - summarizes magaphyll volution
    - - all subedivisions one plane
    - - between telomes and lower branching
      - parenchyma
    - - sporangium-bearing, leaf-like structure
    - - monophyletic clade
  - - - 3) 30-kilobase inversion
      - 2) have megaphylls
      - 1) exarch xylem in roots
    - - lignophytes
        
        woody plants
      - monilophytes
        
        ferns
  - - - 15 extant species
    - - 5-10 umbrella shape
    - - true leaves and roots
      - lateral branches
      - main trunk
- - - - mesophyll #
      - vascular bundles #
      - stomata
    - - secretes watery fluid
        
        digestion
  - - - spongy mesophyll
      - palisade parenchyma
    - - CO2 transport requires
        
        Kranz Anatomy
        
        clustered ring
  - - - closely packed fibers
    - - no
        
        vascular tissue
        
        parenchyma
        
        mesophyll
    - - two leaf types
        
        axillary buds
        
        cluster of spines
        
        microscopic green leaves
        
        green cactus body
  - - - waxier
      - tougher
      - short/absent
    - - protect from
        
        drying by wind (winter)
        
        low temperature
  - - - UV light
      - freezing
      - fungi
      - animals
- - - - strap-shaped leaves
      - cylinder
        
        cuter
        
        abaxial epidermis
        
        sheathing leaf base
      - hood-like shape
    - - extends into cone
      - protrusion
      - interior to protoderm
- - - - protection apical meristem
      - small tissue flaps
    - - multiple vascular bundles
  - - - bundle sheath extension
        
        water movement
        
        rigidity
      - protection from insects
    - - release water
      - narrow
      - branch to minor vein
    - - eudicot leaf
  - - - carbon diffusion (stomata)
      - open, loose parenchyma
    - - main phtosynthetic tissue
      - upper surface cells
- - - - leaf scar
        
        protective scar tissue
      - abscision
        
        cut dead leaf
        
        leaf base
    - - reticulate venation
        
        netted
      - collect sugars
      - water stem to leafe
  - - - several part blades
        
        leaflets
        
        attached by petiole
        
        rachis
        
        extension of petiole
        
        small blades
    - - one-part blade
  - - - sessile leaf
    - - cool leaf
- - - - new shoot (spring)
  - - - nutrients and water
    - - strong
        
        no break or sag
    - - brace trunk
  - - - root epidermis
      - waterproof barrier
    - - dangle freely
  - - - symbiotic
    - - fungal hyphae penetrate
        
        outermost root cortex
        
        never invade cell
      - woody forest plants
    - - herbaceous plants
      - hyphae penetrate
        
        root cortex
        
        to endordermis
        
        not Casparian strip
  - - - conversion N2 to usable compunds
    - - bacteria in soil secrete
        
        substance
      - root hairs curl #
      - bacterium attach at
        
        convex side
        
        pushes cell into tube
    - - mitosis
        
        bacerium attach
        
        produce N2
  - - - parasitic plants
      - absorb host minerals
  - - - deposit seeds
        
        seeds germinate
- - - - from new meristem
        
        damaged
      - "healthy cells"
      - resists
        
        radiation
        
        toxic chemicals
  - - - protoderm
  - - - epidermis
        
        cylinder
        
        altered walls
        
        casparian strips
        
        regulate minerals in xylem
        
        pericycle
        
        between endodermis and vascular tissue
        
        irregular region
        
        lateral roots
  - - - only casparian strips
      - absorb minerals
      - root pressure
        
        absorb minerals
        
        water pressure increases
- - - - cell divisions #
  - - - root apical meristem
      - small root primordium
        
        swells
        
        destroys new lateral root
- - - - developed from
        
        radicle
        
        in seed
        
        largest root
      - single prominent taproot
    - - main carbohydrate storage
    - - mass of roots
        
        similarly size
      - adventatious roots
        
        not radicles
        
        increase
        
        absorptions
        
        transport capacities
    - - rot cap
        
        thick layer cells
        
        protects root apical meristem
        
        mucigel
        
        complex polysaccharide
        
        secreted by dictysomes
      - Zone of Elongation
        
        behind root cap
        
        cell division and expansion
      - root hairs
        
        not elonging section
        
        trichome
        
        increase absorption capacity
- - - - Caryophyllales
        
        anthocyanin pigments
        
        betalains
        
        perisperm
      - Santalales
    - - fabids
      - malvids
    - - iridoid compounds
      - orders
      - lamiids
      - campanulids
  - - - Single germination pore
- - - - Has all flowers
- - - - sterile cells
        
        enlarge
        
        change chloroplasts to chromoplasts
      - grow
    - - canal
      - do not surround egg
      - superficial cells make
    - - numerous chambers
        
        mucilage when young
- - - - structure #
        
        seta is sensitive
      - little variability
      - single, elongate cells
  - - - radiating fingers
        
        droop down
      - stalked
    - - tall stalk
      - umbrella shaped
    - - NOT stomata
      - large
    - - thallus
        
        body with no
        
        leaves
        
        stems
        
        roots
      - gametophyte phase
        
        establish temporary protonematal
        
        spores germinate
    - - gametophore
        
        two rounded lobes
        
        like mosses
- - - - rhizoids
        
        penetrate substrate surface
        
        small, multicellular
        
        trichome-like structures
      - leptoids
        
        elongated and interconnected
        
        resemble sieve cells
      - hydroids
        
        cell walls digested
        
        dissolve minerals
        
        conduct water
    - - thrive within cities
      - ubiquitous
    - - archegonia #
        
        eggs
      - antheridia
        
        sperms
    - - grow from apical meristem
      - stems are slim
      - gametophores
        
        grow close together
        
        leafy stems
    - - long chlorophyll cell
        
        begins development
      - protoonema
        
        filamentous green alga
        
        branched system
  - - - neck
      - layer of cells
    - - controls spores
      - respond to humidity
    - - separates from sporangium
      - cap-like lid
    - - between sporangium and foot
      - stalk
    - - inner column
        
        sterile cells
      - outer layer
        
        sterile cells
      - simple apical sporangium
    - - basal cell in archegonium
      - small, bulbous tissues
- - - - byrophyta #
        
        mosses
      - anthoceotophyta
        
        hornworts
      - hepatophyta
        
        liverworts
    - - gametangia
      - multicellular sprangia
- - - - enter ecosystem
      - carbon compound
    - - nutrients moving om ecosystem
        
        herbivores
        
        carnivors
    - - breakdown reains of organisms
      - sungi, bacteria,
    - - prey on herbivores
      - carnivores
    - - nutrients from primary producers
      - herbivore
    - - first in food web
      - autotrophs
- - - - species
        
        bristle-cone pines
        
        crowded habitats
    - - species
        
        small shrubs
        
        annuals
  - - - number live in ecosystem
      - indivduals
    - - ideal conditions
      - number of offspring produced
    - - birth of indvidual
        
        to birth of offspring
    - - proportions in
        
        old
        
        middle-aged
        
        young
  - - - inhibition of allochemics
    - - establish zones for habitat
      - plants
      - release of chemicals
    - - not ext4remely common
      - evenly spaced individuals
      - orchards and tree plantations
    - - spacing between plants
        
        not average
        
        small
        
        big
    - - randnom distribution
        
        no predictive value
        
        no placement pattern
    - - plant
      - healthing determining factor
- - - - biotic
        
        pathogeneic
        
        causing diseas to organism
        
        herbivors #
        
        delimited
        
        herbivory
        
        grazing
        
        browsing
        
        animals eat plants
        
        predation #
        
        one species benefits
        
        one species harmed
        
        commensal relationships
        
        one species benefits
        
        one species unaffected
        
        Organusms Other Than Plants
        
        frugivores
        
        mutaulism
        
        fruit- eating animals
        
        plants
        
        transplant experiments
        
        grown in common garden
        
        different systems
        
        plants taken to sites
        
        ecotypes #
        
        specialized ecosystems
        
        competition exclusion
        
        niche
        
        only one species
        
        partiular set of conditions
        
        less adapted species exculded
        
        other species
        
        competition
        
        relationship between organisms
        
        disadventageous for one
        
        mutualism
        
        relationship between organisms
        
        beneficial for both
        
        the plant itself
        
        presence changes habitat
        
        living factors
        
        animals
        
        funig
        
        plants
      - abiotic
        
        Latitude abd Altitude
        
        higher altitudes
        
        longer days
        
        latitude
        
        equator
        
        12 hrs
        
        short day
        
        nonliving
        
        disturbance
        
        wipe out individuals
        
        alter soiil
        
        significant, radical change
        
        flooda
        
        snow avalanches
        
        landslides
        
        fires
        
        Soil
        
        3 layera
        
        C horizon
        
        parent and rock fragments
        
        B horizon
        
        humus and clay
        
        materials accumulate
        
        "sone of deposition"
        
        A horizon
        
        washes nutrients down
        
        litter and debris
        
        "zone of leaching"
        
        upermost
        
        pioneers
        
        first plants to invade soil
        
        breakdown of rock
        
        climate
        
        tolerance range
        
        specific to orgamnism
        
        between low and high extremes
        
        components
        
        rain
        
        wind
        
        temperature
        
        specific to organsm
- - - - discovered
        
        direct analysis of
        
        lunar samples
        
        meteorites
        
        what happens in normal environments
      - first chemosynthetic hypothesis
  - - - NO OXYGEN
        
        no breakdown
      - no limits
    - - the sun
      - UV and gamma
      - heat
        
        radioactive decay
        
        radium
        
        uranium
        
        gas and dust on earth
    - - presence powerful reducing agenets
      - lack of molecular oxygen
      - early second atmostphere
    - - second atmosphere
        
        release of gases from rock
      - first ONLY hydrogen
- - - - desert formed mmutations
      - were leafy greens
  - - - founder individuals
        
        look like the founder
        
        two set sof alleles
      - short time
      - rapdi divergance of species
    - - act before zygote formation
    - - hybrid inviability
        
        early embryonic death
      - hybrid sterility
        
        sterile plant produced
      - two subspecies made
      - genomes too different
    - - sympatric speciation
        
        grow together
        
        two groups reproductively isolated
      - prevents successful gene flow
    - - geographical speciation
        
        mountains
      - cannot interbreed
      - 2+ populations
    - - prevents gene exchange
      - nonliving feature
    - - two regions
        
        one region no
        
        on region yes
  - - - vegetative propagation
      - seed dispersal
      - pollen transfer
      - physically moving alleles
- - - - drought, insect attacks, cold
  - - - voluntary decision making
      - planning
      - intention
      - purpose
    - - two conditions
        
        progeny must differ
        
        overproduction of offspring
      - survival of fittest
    - - produce ornamental plants
      - selective breeding
      - purposeful change allele
    - - natural disaster
      - organism cannot adapt