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Course Mind Map (Tissues and Primary Stem Growth (Internal Stem…

- - - - Shield
      - Cutin (Impermeable)
      - Cuticle (Water Retention)
      - Stoma
      - Trichomes (Hair triggers)
    - - Secrete resin
      - Compact or open tissue
      - Air chambers (Buoyancy)
    - - Xylem
      - Phloem
    - - Annular thickenings (Water movement)
      - Helical thickening
      - Scalariform thickening (Strength)
      - Reticulate thickening (Net)
      - Circular bordered pits (Strongest)
    - - Sieve cells
      - Albuminous cells
      - Companion cells
    - - Pith
      - Primary Xylem
      - Primary Phloem
      - Collateral # #
  - - - Distichous (2 rows only)
      - Spiral (Not aligned)
      - Whorled (3 or more leaves per node)
      - Decussate (4 rows)
      - Opposite (2 leaves per node)
      - Alternate (1 Leaf per node)
    - - Trunk
      - Bulbs
      - Stolons
      - Internodes
      - Nodes
      - Axillary bud (dormant apical meristem )
    - - Rhizomes
      - Terminal bud
      - Leaf axil (Above node)
      - Internodes (Between nodes)
      - Nodes (Leaf Attachment)
  - - - Conducting
      - Mechanical
        
        Long fibers
        
        Wood of flowering plants
        
        Pest resistant
        
        Strength
        
        Flexibility
        
        Short sclereids
        
        Form shells and pits
        
        Inflexible
        
        Brittle
        
        Strong walls
        
        Cuboidal
    - - Transfer cells
        
        Large scale molecular pumping
        
        Extensive plasma membrane
        
        Short distance ransport
      - Glandular cells
        
        Transform and transport sugars
        
        Few chloroplasts
        
        Secrete nectar and scent
      - Chlorenchyma cells
        
        Thin walled
        
        Numerous chloroplasts
        
        Photosynthesis
    - - Inner tissue support
      - Found in elongating shoot tips
      - Withstand high pressure
      - Plasticity
  - - - Subapical meristem
    - - Metaxylem
    - - Metphloem
- - - - Palm Trees
        
        Palm trunk
        
        Do not grow rapidly
        
        Primary xylem and phloem only
        
        Do not branch
        
        Do not taper
        
        Vascular cambium does not develop
    - - Secondary growth in monocots
      - Roots of Sweet Potatoes
        
        Secondary tissue #
        
        Increase storage
        
        Irregular matrix of parenchyma
      - Unequal activity of vascular cambium
      - Included phloem
  - - - Cork arises in pericycle
      - Form bark
    - - Sclerenchyma present
      - Small rays
      - Do not store H2O
  - - - Periderm
      - Cork cambium or phellogen
      - Mature parenchyma layer (phelloderm) #
      - Cork cell (outer cell) #
    - - Forms in a year
      - Delayed bark formation
    - - Holds H2O
      - Keeps pathogens out
      - No H2O absorption
  - - - Only parenchyma cells present
    - - Sieve tubes present
      - Fibers present
      - Up and down growth
      - Companion cells present
  - - - No lignin
      - Growth rings wider at top
      - Walls rich in cellulose
    - - Softwood
        
        Little to no fiber
        
        Can be harder than hardwood
      - Axial system
        
        All present in Eudicots
        
        Formed from fusiform initials
        
        Parenchyma rarely present (Conifers) #
        
        Fibers rarely present (Conifers) #
        
        No vessels (Conifers) #
        
        Conduction of water
      - Hardwood
        
        Have large amounts of fiber
        
        Strong
        
        Durable
        
        Eudicots
        
        Basal angiosperms
      - Radial system
        
        Formed from ray initials
        
        Ray parenchyma present
    - - Annual rings
        
        Early wood
        
        Higher portion vessels
        
        Spring wood
        
        Porous
        
        Late Wood
        
        Lower portion vessels
        
        Summer wood
    - - Heartwood
        
        Gets wider with age
        
        Dark wood
        
        One ring is converted annually
      - Sapwood
        
        Light
        
        New layer yearly
        
        Holds moisture
  - - - Undergo periclinal cell division
        
        Phloem
        
        Xylem
      - Store parenchyma
      - Short
    - - Storied cambium
      - Non-storied cambium
    - - Axial xylem
      - Long tapered cells
      - Axial phloem
      - Periclinal wall
        
        Perpendicular to cambium
        
        Increase cambial cells
      - Thin primary walls
    - - Vascular cambium
        
        Fusiform cels
        
        Produce secondary plant body
        
        Ray cells
      - Interfascicular cambium #
        
        Fascicular cambium
        
        Bundle cells
        
        Young cells
        
        Young cells
        
        Attached to Fascicular cambium
- - - - Animals are captured in one area and released into the new area.
    - - Several local populations interconnected by migration and gene flow.
    - - High quality patch
    - - A species that survives by colonizing new patches, flourishing briefly, and then colonizes more patches.
    - - Low quality patch
  - - - A species that when removed has a large impact on the community it inhabits.
    - - Direct line of consumption, (Producer Primary to Predator)
    - - Shows which organism at a given trophic level consumes the most energy.
    - - Shows a network of numerous interrelations with several paths of consumption.
  - - - No actual competition occuring
    - - Resource
      - Exploitation competition
      - Invasive
      - Interference competition
    - - Optimal diet model
        
        Makes 4 predictions
        
        The probability that a particular plant will be eaten deals partially with abundance.
        
        Predators should prefer whichever prey yields the most energy per unit of handling time.
        
        Some prey items will always be when encountered, others will never be eaten.
        
        If the high-yield prey become sufficiently scarce, then the predator would be more successful by broadening its diet to include prey that are lower in energy if they are abundant and easy to handle.
      - Optimal foraging theory
        
        Examination of the interaction between factors that cause herbivores to eat some plants and avoid others.
    - - Fixed quota harvesting
        
        The particular amount fishermen and hunters are to harvest.
      - One species of prey is attacked by one species of predator
      - Functional Response
        
        Feeding rate and handling time
      - Fixed effect harvesting
        
        Population health is determined by the amount of harvested species that can be harvested with a particular amount of effort
      - Prey-dependent
        
        Predators' functional response is dependent on prey density
      - Maximum sustained yield
        
        Theory of harvesting just enough of a species to keep the population density stable
      - Paradox of enrichment
        
        When the predator-prey interaction becomes unstable, improving the conditions for the prey which in turn may lead predators to overexploit the prey.
      - Zero growth isocline
        
        Indicates population stability
  - - - Scale
        
        Earth as a community vs. the United States as a community
        
        Larger areas are more diverse than smaller areas
      - Species Abundance Distribution
        
        Plot showing number of species in each abundance class
      - Species-Area Relationship
        
        The relationship between area and species richness
    - - Tropical regions also have higher rainfall
      - The further north the fewer species
      - Tropical regions provide less harsh environments than higher latitudes
      - More species near the equator
  - - - Organisms become established on newly created substrates
    - - Plants that alter the environment in a way that enhances the survival and reproduction of a second.
    - - One organism helps another without receiving any benefit.
    - - The interaction between two species that benefits them both.
- - - - No peristome teeth
      - No stomata
      - Lacks columella
      - Sporangia covered by calpytra
      - Foot
      - Clear thin cells
    - - Two groups
        
        Thallose Liverworts
        
        Antheridia and archegonia grouped together
        
        Air pores
        
        Bears rhizoids
        
        Thick body
        
        Thallus body
        
        Leafy Liverworts
        
        Gametangia
        
        Leaves arranged in rows of 3
        
        No midrib or conducting tissue
        
        Thin leaves and slender stem
        
        Greatly resemble moss
        
        Gametophyte phase initiated when spores germinate
  - - - No satea
      - Foot
        
        Attached to gametophyte
      - Spores have columella
      - Sporangia grows from root
        
        Horn-like shape
    - - Egg lies below short neck and neck canal surrounded by thallus cells
      - Archegonia formed from surface cells
      - Antheridia transform chloroplasts into chromoplasts
      - Mucilage chamber forms near surface
      - Antheridia are not surface cells
      - Gametangium development is distinctive
      - Die before summer due to drying
      - Spores present in spring
      - Grow in the winter
      - Appear in the fall
  - - - Reproduction
        
        Oogamous has small biflagellate sperm and large egg cells
        
        Egg
        
        Archegonia
        
        Sperm
        
        Antheridia
        
        Gametophore produces gametangia
      - Morphology
        
        Derivative cells subdivide into tissues and leaves
        
        Cuticle occurs on upper surface #
        
        Gametophores
        
        Grow as ribbons 15cm from apical meristem
        
        Leaves aligned in 3 rows
        
        Most have midrib
        
        Only one cell thick
        
        No stomata #
        
        Stems are slender
      - Development
        
        Produces many buds
        
        Spore germinates
        
        Process repeats
        
        Mitosis occurs
      - Water Transport
        
        Leptoids resemble sieve tubes
        
        Do not lose cytoplasm
        
        Lack nuclei at maturity
        
        Rhezoids anchor the stem
        
        Walls appear reddish
        
        Don't absorb water or minerals
        
        Lack chloroplasts
        
        Hydroids conduct water and minerals
        
        Hydroids lose cytoplasm when mature
        
        Hydroids are long
        
        Transport sugar between parenchyma cells at slow rate
        
        Some lack hydroids
        
        Most conduct water
    - - Calyptra
      - Peristome teeth
      - Operculum
      - Foot
      - Satea (slender stalk)
      - Sporangia
        
        Capsule contains spores
  - - - 3 classes mosses, liverworts, hornworts
    - - Division Bryophyta: Mosses
      - Division Anthocerotophyta: Hornworts
      - Division Hepatophyta: Liverworts
  - - - Life Cycle
        
        Embryophytes
        
        Sporangia
        
        Never branch
        
        Never has leaves
        
        Little photosynthesis
        
        Smaller
        
        More temporary
        
        Gametangia
        
        Larger
        
        More prominent
      - General Characteristics
        
        Cuticle covers most of the body
        
        True parenchyma
        
        Exclusively terrestrial
        
        Lots of stomata
        
        Lack of vascular tissue
    - - Example: Spanish Moss
      - Life cycle
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Small
        
        Found inside ovules and pollen grains
        
        Sporophytes
        
        Large
        
        Roots and leaves
- - - - Forms glucose phosphate
      - Forms fructose phosphate
      - Forms fructose biphosphate
      - Gluconeogenesis
  - - - Stomata open at night
      - Very similar to C4
      - Succulents
      - Improves H2O conservation
    - - Stomata open in day
      - PEP Carboxylase
        
        Adds CO2 to PEP
        
        High CO2 Affinity
      - Photorespiration
    - - Exits and enters stomata
    - - Water loss reduction
    - - Duration of sunlight
      - Light compensation point
      - Quality of sunlight
      - Quantity of light
  - - - Pigment
        
        Accessory Pigment
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Reaction center
        
        Antenna complex
        
        Chlorophyll b
        
        Photosystem II
        
        Absorbs light
        
        Activated
        
        Excited state
        
        Ground state
        
        Chlorophyll a
        
        Photosystem I
      - Amount of energy
      - Wavelength
  - - - Oxidation
        
        Remove electrons
      - Reduction
        
        Add electrons
      - Light energy
        
        Sunlight
      - Chemical energy
        
        ATP
- - - - No leaflets
      - Numerous leaf shapes #
        
        Cordiform
        
        Hastiform
        
        Peltiform
        
        Sagittiform
    - - Leaflets # #
      - Petiolules on each leaflet
      - Petiolules attached to Rachis
      - Palmate
        
        Attached at individual points
      - Pinnate
        
        Attached at same point
        
        Arranged in 2 rows
    - - Abscision zone
    - - Parallel venation
      - Reticulate venation
  - - - Lateral veins
        
        Conduction #
        
        Primary xylem upper side #
        
        Primary phloem lower isde #
        
        Support leaf blade #
      - Mid-rib
      - Minor veins
        
        Release H2O from xylem
        
        Load sugar into phloem
    - - Palisade parenchyma
        
        Main photosynthetic tissue
        
        Intercellular spaces
        
        Occurs along upper surface
      - Spongy mesophyll
        
        Loose aerenchyma
        
        Occurs in the center
    - - Transition between stem and lamina
      - Epidermis contains few stomata
      - Petiole mesophyll like cortex
      - Leaf traces
        
        Can remain distinct
        
        Fuse into single trace
        
        Vascular bundles
        
        Plate
        
        Ring
      - Stipules
        
        Protect shoot apical meristem
    - - Transpiration
      - Waterproof
      - Epidermal cells
        
        Guard cells # #
        
        Trichomes
        
        Provide shade
        
        Prevent rapid air movemnet
        
        Slow water loss
        
        Prevent leaf consumption
      - Stomata # # # #
        
        Allow H2O and CO2 to enter
      - Lower epidermis # #
      - Upper epidermis #
        
        Wax on outer walls
  - - - Growth at shoot apical meristem #
        
        Leaf primordium #
        
        Leaf protoderm
        
        Leaf ground meristem
        
        Bulk of mid-rib
    - - Lamina
        
        Allow regeneration
      - Basal expansion
  - - - Thick and fleshy
      - Favor H2O conservation
      - No air spaces
    - - Produce sugar by photosynthesis
      - Soft, flexible, edible
      - Sclerenchyma makes leaves resistant
    - - Protection
    - - Modified axillary buds
      - Provide protection
      - Decay resistant
    - - Provide support
      - Maximize photosynthesis
    - - Digest insects
      - Evolved in plants
      - Poor soil quality
- - - - Models the origin of life using only chemical and physical processes
      - Rejects divine intervention
    - - No limit on time available for chemosynthetic origin #
    - - Heat
      - Radiation from the sun
      - Electricity
    - - Reducing atmosphere
      - Produced by release of gas from rock matrix
      - Caused by lack of molecular oxygen
  - - - Two populations interbreed but offspring cannot reproduce
    - - Two species evolve resembling one another
    - - Two groups that become reproductively isolated even though they grow together
    - - Reproductively isolated
        
        Abiological reproductive barriers
        
        Non-living factor keep populations from gene exchange
        
        Biological reproductive barriers
        
        Prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        Prevents pollen from moving from one plant to another
        
        Biological prevention of gene flow
    - - Species divided, geographically, into two or more populations
    - - Gene flow
        
        New alleles arise and are selected for #
      - Pollen transfer
        
        Egg is fertilized and forms seed with new allele
      - Vegetative propagation #
        
        Contribute to gene flow
      - Seed dispersal
        
        Floods
        
        Animals
        
        Wind
  - - - Artificial selection
        
        Process in which humans change the allele frequency of a gene pool
        
        Produces ornamental plants
        
        Causes longer flowering period
        
        Causes more often flowering
        
        Carried out with artificial mutation
        
        Selective breeding
      - Natural Selection
        
        Population must produce more offspring than can survive or grow
        
        Progeny must differ in allele type
        
        Most significant in changing gene pool
        
        Most fit survive
      - Accidents
        
        Can have a large or small impact on allele frequency
        
        Organisms cannot adapt to accidents
        
        Decrease alleles in a given area
        
        For example a large meteorite striking Earth's surface
      - Mutation
        
        Significance depends on population size
        
        Cause decrease in existing alleles
        
        Cause new alleles to increase
        
        Mutations occur continually
      - Gene pool
        
        Total number of alleles in all sex cells of a population
- - - - Physical size and shape of organisms and their distribution to each other and physical environment
    - - The changes that an ecosystem undergoes with time
        
        As long as a decade or several seasons
        
        As short as a day
    - - Number and diversity of species that coexist in an ecosystem
        
        Dependent on climate
        
        Tolerance ranges
        
        Soil richness
    - - Primary producers
        
        Autotrophs
      - Energy flow and carbon flow go from level to level
      - Primary consumers
        
        Also called secondary producers
      - Decomposers
        
        Fungi
        
        Bacteria
      - Secondary consumers
  - - - Douglas firs and bristle-cone pines
      - Conditions in crowded habitat
    - - Local Geographic Distrubution
        
        Uniform distribution
        
        Allelopathy
        
        Allelochemics
        
        Clumped distribution
        
        Random distribution
      - Boundaries of the Geographic
        
        Limiting fator
    - - r-selected species
        
        Annuals or small shrubby perennials
      - Disturbance produces conditions optimal for r
    - - Generation time can affect population growth
      - Biotic potential
        
        Carrying capacity
  - - - The Plant Itself
        
        Trees modify the habitat by producing a dense canopy
        
        Decaying leaves of pioneer species enrich the soil
        
        Pine trees modify their habitat adversely for their continued success
      - Organisms Other Than Plants
        
        Frugivores
        
        Disperse seeds by eating fruit
        
        Predation
        
        Herbivory
        
        Grazing
        
        Browsing
        
        Commensal relationships
        
        One species benefits and the other is unaffected
      - Other Plant Species
        
        Competition
        
        Exclusion
        
        Disadvantageous interaction between organisms
        
        Mutualism
        
        Interaction beneficial for both organisms
    - - Operational Habitat
        
        Aspects of the habitat that affect the plant
      - Set of conditions in which an organism completes its life cycle
    - - Disturbance
        
        Man-made
        
        Habitat destruction
        
        Insecticides
        
        Hunting
        
        Herbicides
        
        Floods
        
        Fires
        
        Landslides
        
        Avalanches
      - Climate
        
        Rainfall
        
        Relative humidity
        
        Wind
        
        Temperature
        
        Tolerance range
        
        Between the low and high extremes
      - Latitude and Altitude
        
        Above Artic and Antarctic Circles
        
        Mid-winter nights 24 hours long
        
        Mid-summer days are 24 hours long
        
        Higher latitudes
        
        Either north or south
        
        Winter nights longer
        
        Summer days longer
        
        Equator
        
        No seasonal change
        
        All days are 12 hours long
      - Soil Factors
        
        C horizon
        
        Composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        Below B horizon
        
        Pioneers
        
        Some angiosperms
        
        Lichens
        
        First plants to invade new soil low in nitrogen
        
        B horizon
        
        Also called zone of deposition
        
        Next layer below A
        
        A horizon
        
        Also called zone of leaching
        
        Top layer of thick soil
  - - - Includes a community along with the physical nonliving environment
    - - All the populations of different species
    - - An individual plant never exist in isolation in a habitat
      - All individuals of the same species in a habitat
    - - The study of organisms in relationship to all of their surroundings
- - - - Used to determine what alleles are represented
    - - Selfing (when a plant's own pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs)
      - Selfing heterozygotes produces 3 types of F1 offspring #
      - Results in 1:2:1 genotypic ratio
    - - There is no intermediate phenotype # #
      - Recessive
        
        Phenotype can only be expressed by homozygous alleles
      - Dominant
        
        Phenotype that is expressed over the other either heterozygous or homozygous
    - - Can result in an intermediate trait
      - Neither parental trait dominates the other
  - - - Chromatin becomes less compact
        
        Chromatin opens to allow
      - Double helix is cut
        
        Forms bubble or replicon
    - - Used for DNA synthesizing enzyme
      - Acts as substrate
      - Adds only to 3' end of nucleic acid
    - - Polymerized ribonucleotides
      - 10 nucleotides long
      - Pair with bases along both strands
      - Free nucleotides
    - - Each DNA strand acts as template
      - New double helix contains one new and one old molecule
    - - DNA unwinds and seperates
        
        Forms forked appearance
    - - Attached by covalent bonds
        
        Form 2 new, complete molecules
      - Fork runs into adjacent replicons
  - - - Smallest mutation
      - Single base converted to another
    - - Loss of DNA piece
      - Caused by short regions of self-complementary sequence
    - - Additon of extra DNA
      - Insertion sequnces
        
        Can be a few thousand base pairs long
    - - Tangle causing breaks
        
        During repair DNA piece is put in backwards
    - - Causes mutation
        
        Chemicals
        
        UV light
        
        X-rays
        
        Radiation
    - - Can be longer than insertion sequence
      - Carry genes that code for proteins not associated with transportation
    - - No effects
      - Effects depend on nature, position, and its extent
      - Promoter region mutations
        
        Can completely inactivate genes
      - Almost always harmful
    - - Mutation that never leads to sex cells