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Course MindMap, Chapter 22: Gymnosperms (Division Cycadophyta: Cycads…

- - - - abundant wood and secondary phloem
  - - - Middle Devonian Period
        
        390 million years ago
    - - megasporium
        
        integument
        
        micropyle
        
        pollen chamber
        
        holding area
  - - - primary xylem
        
        protostele
  - - - extinct
- - - - three-ribbed protostele
    - - manoxylic
        
        softer and less dense
        
        conifers and and progymnosperms
- - - - cone bracts
        
        short axis bears these
- - - - 40 species
    - - only species in genus
    - - 30 species
- - - - secondary vascular bundles
        
        cells undergo rapid division
        
        narrow cells produced
    - - produces many vascular cambia
        
        speed production of storage capacity
    - - stem becomes wider
        
        increases conducting capacity
    - - secondary phloem
        
        between two bands of xylem #
  - - - Establishment growth
        
        increase in width and addition of adventitious roots
      - No vascular cambium
      - No secondary phloem
      - No true wood
- - - - growth rings
        
        eccentric
        
        much wider on top of branch
      - tension wood
        
        rich in cellulose
        
        little to no lignin
  - - - dark wood
      - older wood
    - - new layer is formed annually
      - light wood
      - moist wood
- - - - not identical to stems of same plant
      - sapwood
      - heartwood
- - - - after division
        
        outer cell
    - - secondary phloem
        
        between vascular cambium and innermost cork cambium
    - - layer of parenchyma
    - - all tissues outside innermost cork cambium
    - - layers of cork cells
  - - - primary/secondary phloem
      - cortex
      - epidermis
    - - green to tan
  - - - Retains water
      - Keeps out pathogens
    - - Blocks absorption of oxygen
- - - - conifers
        
        albuminous cells
        
        ray cells
      - parenchyma cells
    - - conduction up and down stem
    - - develops from ray initials
- - - - horizontal rows
    - - no horizoontal pattern
  - - - connects on each side
        
        fascicular cambia
  - - - Albuminous cells
      - Gymnosperms #
      - Storage parenchyma
  - - - produces 2 elongate cells
    - - increases number of cambial cells
- - - - homozygous #
        
        2 identical alleles
      - F1
        
        F2
  - - - types of gametes are arranged on square
    - - asexual reproduction
  - - - homozygous recessives
  - - - 2 effective alleles
    - - loses to dominant
- - - - causes mutations
    - - insertion sequence
        
        longer and carries genes
- - - - space in region called "bubble"
- - - - fraction of phenotype
        
        associated with a particular gene
  - - - multiple phenotype effects
- - - - higher probability of crossing over
  - - - each 1 percent "space"
    - - cross-over rate determined by distance of genes
- - - - zygote
        
        all plastids and mitochondrion genomes
    - - a male parent
    - - plastid inheritance
    - - alleles transmitted equally
  - - - homologous genes
        
        arose through gene application
    - - nucleus may have up to 600 genes
    - - chromosome number change per nucleus
    - - more than 2 types of chromosomes
  - - - presence can kill allele
- - - - molecular interaction
    - - soil dries
        
        water unusable
    - - liquid water
  - - - dry atmosphere
        
        determines guard cells opening
  - - - water loss through cuticle
    - - most accepted model
    - - water loss
        
        -50.0 MPa
- - - - most supported theory
  - - - transport of water and nutrients
- - - - fuses with another organelle
  - - - all solutes diffuse
    - - only certain substances pass
    - - nothing is allowed passage
- - - - usage of potassium ions
        
        impermeable membrane
        
        potassium cannot leave
  - - - glands that secrete salt
      - loading of sugar in or out phloem #
      - nutrient passage to embryos
  - - - motor cells virtually collapse
    - - midrib or at petiole attachment
        
        folding
        
        flexing
- - - - moves completely away from wall
    - - protoplast moves away from wall
  - - - abundant algae growth
        
        suffocates fish
  - - - in each direction
    - - animal cells
        
        burst in pure water
- - - - dramatically effects structure of community
- - - - migrations and gene flow
        
        local population is now metapopulation
  - - - many weeds of disturbed sites
- - - - S=cA^z
    - - number of species in each abundance class
- - - - fishermen and hunters are allowed a certain amount
    - - population health
        
        determined by effort
    - - harvesting just enough of the species
    - - over-exploitation of prey
        
        leads to loss of both species
    - - the line indicating population stability
    - - prey available determines predator's functional response
    - - time to find and consume prey
  - - - why herbivores eat the plants and ignore others
    - - makes 4 predictions
        
        optimal energy #
        
        abundance of other plants
        
        broadening diet
        
        edible parts are sometimes best left alone
  - - - makes resource less available for other organisms
      - one or both grows poorly
    - - factor that leads to increased growth rates
    - - one organism restricts another organisms access to a resource
    - - species can increase from low population density
- - - - on newly created substrates
- - - - 60,000
  - - - nutritive tissue
        
        perisperm
        
        surrounds developing embryo
      - water-soluble pigments
        
        betalains
      - other flowering plants
        
        anthyocyanin pigments
    - - mostly parasitic
      - highly modified plants
      - small order
- - - - 100 years ago
      - #
    - - relictual
    - - has all parts
        
        stamens
        
        carpels
        
        most superior
        
        petals
        
        sepals
  - - - 125 million years ago
      - Japan
- - - - produces seeds enclosed within carpel
  - - - on each embryo
    - - elongate and strap shaped
    - - parts arranged in threes
        
        three stamens
        
        three carpels
        
        three sepals
- - - - large, colorful leaves
    - - 11 families
        
        Liliaceae
        
        many ornamental plants, mostly bulbs
        
        "typical" monocot
        
        1300 species
  - - - major carbohydrates for people
        
        in tropical areas
      - starchy "tubers"
    - - Dioscoreaceae
  - - - open areas secrete nectar
        
        septal nectaries
      - fused sides
      - carpels fuse
  - - - coconut
    - - ginger
      - banana
    - - cattails
      - bromeliads
- - - - single germination pore
- - - - carries electrons on copper ion
        
        travels a short distance
        
        chloroplast membranes
    - - iron atom
      - heme
        
        carries electrons
        
        thylakoid membrane
        
        intrinsic membrane protein
    - - hydrophobic
        
        dissolves into lipid chloroplasts
  - - - photophosphorylation #
        
        sunlight
        
        chloroplasts
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        oxidations using oxygen
        
        mitochondria
      - substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        cytosol
        
        reactions not involving oxygen
  - - - Reduced
        
        Gain of Electrons
        
        reducing agents
        
        NADPH
        
        NADH
        
        places electrons on molecules
      - Oxidized
        
        loss of electrons
        
        oxidizing agents
        
        NADP+
        
        Takes electrons from molecules
        
        NAD+
      - Electron acceptor or donor
- - - - glucose-6-phosphate
      - fructose-6-phosphate
      - gluconeogenesis
      - fructose-1,6-biphosphate
      - dihydroxyacetone phosphate
    - - anabolic reactions
  - - - ferredoxin (a protein)
        
        ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase (an enzyme)
      - P700
    - - Plastocyanin
      - Phaeophytin
      - Quinone
      - P680
      - Cytochrome b6/f complex
    - - chlorphyll a
        
        absorbs some red and blue light
        
        absorbs quanta
        
        electron activated
        
        ground state
        
        excited state
        
        5 percent energy captured
      - accessory pigments
        
        chlorophyll b
        
        resonance with chlorophyll a
        
        antenna complex
        
        transfers energy to reaction center
        
        carotenoids
        
        absorb excessive light
      - Absorbs particular wavelengths
        
        distinctive visible color not absorbed
      - absorption spectrum
        
        most effective wavelengths
      - fluorescence
        
        the release of light
    - - acceptor molecule
        
        CO2 has 1 carbon
        
        RuBP has 5 carbons
        
        RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO) has 2 3-phosphoglycerate molecules
        
        ribulose-1,5-biphosphate
- - - - High affinity for CO2
  - - - conservation of water
  - - - The color or wavelength
    - - Light intensity
    - - Hours of sunlight
- - - - parenchyma similar to cortex
    - - primary phloem
      - primary xylem
  - - - photosynthetic parenchyma #
      - homogenous
  - - - Outer tangential wall
        
        Cutin
        
        Impermeable
        
        cuticle
  - - - phloem
        
        distributes minerals and sugars
        
        sieve cells
        
        sieve element
        
        sieve areas
        
        sieve tube
        
        1 more item...
        
        sieve pores
      - xylem #
        
        conducts water and minerals
- - - - apex of each stem
    - - modified leaves #
  - - - Fleshy horizontal stems
        
        Tubers
        
        Short period of growth
        
        allow spreading underground
    - - Vertical thick stems
    - - distichous phyllotaxy
        
        leaves in 2 rows
      - Leaves on stem
    - - Axillary bud
        
        miniature shoot
      - Above point where leaf attaches
  - - - Vertical main shoot
    - - Short shoots
        
        Thick fleshy leaves
    - - Internodes
        
        Between nodes
      - Nodes
        
        leaves are attached
- - - - metaxylem
      - protoxylem
      - protophloem
      - metaphloem
- - - - Short-distance transport
    - - numerous chloroplasts
      - Involved in photosynthesis
        
        thin walls permit pigment
    - - Soft leaves, petals, fruits, and seeds
      - most common
      - mass of parenchyma cells
  - - - Wind
      - Snow
      - Animals
    - - Walls are elastic
      - Almost always lignified
        
        Remain upright
  - - - Thick in other areas
        
        needs lot of glucose
      - Thin in some areas
        
        Unable to hold stem up
- - - - holds blade into light
        
        abscission zone
        
        leaf base
        
        releases enzymes to weaken cell wall
        
        leaf falls
        
        perpendicular to petiole
  - - - parallel ventilation
        
        veins are side by side
        
        monocots
      - reticulate venation
        
        netted pattern
        
        eudicots
        
        angiosperms
      - distribute water
        
        collecting sugars
  - - - leaflets
        
        many blades
        
        attached to petiole #
        
        rachis
        
        extension of petiole
        
        pinnately compund
        
        1 more item...
        
        palmately compund
        
        1 more item...
    - - blade of just one part
  - - - sheathing leaf base
- - - - portulacaceae
        
        lewisia
        
        portulaca
      - crassulaceae
        
        sedum
        
        kalanchoe
      - aizoaceae
        
        ice plant
  - - - small
      - scale-like needles
      - flat
    - - thick cell walls
      - unpalatable chemical
      - thick cuticle
  - - - hardness
        
        resistant
        
        freezing temperatures
        
        ultraviolet light
        
        animals
        
        fungi
    - - soft
      - flexible
      - edible
- - - - 1,3,5 plus vascular bundles
    - - two small flaps
  - - - deep into epidermal cavaties
    - - protection
      - water loss
    - - retain water
  - - - fibers around vascular tissue
        
        bundle sheath extension
    - - lateral veins
        
        minor veins
        
        load sugar into phloem
        
        releases water from xylem
  - - - main photosynthetic tissue
        
        usually one layer thick
    - - lower part of leaf
      - loose aerenchyma
        
        CO2 diffusion
- - - - leaf primordium
        
        hood-like shape
        
        cylindrical primordium
        
        completely encircles apical meristem
  - - - leaf primordium
        
        lamina #
        
        vascular bundles
        
        stomata
        
        petiole
        
        distinct from the midrib
        
        trichomes
        
        cells meristematic
        
        dense cytoplasm and small vacuoles
- - - - region of growth in root tip
        
        root hair zone
        
        behind zone of elongation
        
        epidermal cells extend out
        
        narrow trichomes
        
        root hairs
        
        3 more items...
        
        zone of elongation
        
        behind root cap
        
        cells divide and expand
        
        apical meristem
        
        thick layer of cells
        
        dictyosomes
        
        mucigel secretion
        
        releases nutrients from soil matrix
        
        rich in carbohydrates
        
        aids rapid growth of bacteria
        
        amino acids
        
        renewed by cell multiplication
  - - - increases absorptive and transport capacities
    - - branched roots
      - lateral roots
    - - similar sized roots to taproot
    - - develops from radicle
        
        embryonic root
        
        carrots
        
        turnips
        
        beats
- - - - slow development
      - only casparian strips
  - - - if damage done
        
        quiescent center cells become active
        
        new formation of apical meristem
      - reserve for healthy cells
      - resistant to harmful agents
      - mitotically inactive
  - - - files of cells pushed forward
        
        starch settles lower side of cell
        
        detect gravity
  - - - increasing water absorption
    - - between vascular and endodermis
        
        initiate lateral roots
    - - tangential walls
        
        called Casparian strips
        
        endodermis becomes waterproof
        
        encrusted with lignin and suberin
  - - - ground tissue
        
        root cortex
      - provascular tissue
        
        primary xylem/ primary phloem
      - protoderm
        
        epidermis
    - - cells enlarged
- - - - pushes outward
        
        breaking through endodermis
        
        protoxylem/protophloem differentiates
        
        forms root cap
- - - - used to produce new shoot in spring
    - - carrots
      - celery
      - beets
    - - daisies
      - datura
      - phlox
  - - - uppermost portions contract
      - root surface becomes wrinkled
      - stem is pulled downward
  - - - may take months to reach ground
        
        transports nutrients once ground is reached
        
        buttress roots
        
        tall
        
        plate-like
        
        braces the trunk
        
        acts as stabilizers
- - - - highly modified roots
        
        secrete adhesive
        
        shaft cells penetrate host dermis
        
        makes contact with xylem
        
        carries out own photosynthesis
        
        contacts phloem
        
        performs little to no photosynthesis
        
        grow around branch/root
- - - - do not break plasma/vacuole membrane
      - invades cell
      - fungi hyphae
        
        penetrates root cortex to caspian strip
    - - fungi hyphae
        
        penetrates between root cortex cells
- - - - root epidermis
        
        waterproof barrier
- - - - penetrates soil rapidly once reached
        
        encases host tree trunk
        
        becomes self supporting tree
        
        host tree dies and rots away
- - - - most significant factor
    - - old alleles decrease, increase in new alleles
    - - organisms cannot adapt
    - - human interference
- - - - no limits
    - - volcanoes
      - electricity
      - heat
    - - reducing atmosphere
        
        powerful reducing agents
        
        lack of molecular oxygen
  - - - inner layer/interior
        
        hydrophilic interior #
        
        mostly hydrophobic outside
      - outer layer
        
        fatty acids
- - - - Mutations
        
        Selectively advantageous
- - - - the enations in the division lychophyta #
  - - - upper surface of Selaginella leaves
  - - - extinct and extant lycophytes in compact groups
- - - - leaves evolved by modification of terminal branches #
- - - - lack seeds
        
        Reproduction crypto/hidden
- - - - stele
        
        siphonostele
        
        pith is present in center
      - protostele
        
        xylem with no pith
        
        exarch protostele
        
        endarch protostele
    - - both branches being equal size and vigor
  - - - small herbs without secondary growth
    - - outgrowths from small to long
- - - - tolerance range
        
        between the low and high extremes
    - - pioneers
        
        first plants that invade new soil
      - horizon
        
        uppermost/zone of leaching
        
        B horizon
        
        zone of deposition
        
        C horizon
        
        parent and rock fragments
    - - fires
        
        common component of many dry ecosystems
      - landslides
      - floods
      - snow avalanches
  - - - fungi and bacteria
        
        pathogenic
        
        virulent
        
        kills plants quickly
        
        mild disease
      - Predation #
        
        one species benefits and the other is harmed
    - - mutualism
        
        beneficial for both organisms
      - competition
        
        competitive exclusion
        
        which species is less adapted is excluded
        
        2 populations don't grow well together
- - - - limiting factor
        
        one factor determines health of plant
    - - Random distribution
      - Uniform distributions
      - Clumped distributions
  - - - r-related species
        
        annuals or small shrubby perennials
    - - K-selected species
        
        douglas firs, and bristle-cone pines
  - - - carrying capacity
        
        individuals can live in a specific ecosystem
      - generation time
        
        birth of individual to it's offspring
      - biotic potential #
        
        number of offspring produced
- - - - number of species and diversity that coexist