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EDU5210 - Unit 1 Reading (Schunk - Learning Theories - 1-4 (Criteria of…

- - - - Formats for Assessing Understanding
      - Theoretical Frameworks for Assessments
      - Formative Assessments and Feedback
    - - Classroom and School Communities
      - Connections to the Broader Community
    - - challenges and expectations have changed quite dramatically (e.g., Bruer, 1993; Resnick, 1987).
      - It was not until the 1930s that the idea emerged of primary school students expressing themselves in writing (Alcorta, 1994; Schneuwly, 1994).
      - 1800s. Instruction in writing focused on the mechanics of making notation as dictated by the teacher, transforming oral messages into written ones.
      - In short, the factory model affected the design of curriculum, instruction, and assessment in schools.
      - Society envisions graduates of school systems who can identify and solve problems and make contributions to society throughout their lifetime—who display the qualities of “adaptive expertise” discussed in Chapter 3
    - - Effects on Beliefs and Attitudes
      - Watching Different Kinds of Programs
- - - - A second principle of sociocultural theory is that learn-ing is fundamentally a social phenomenon that takes place within the communities we belong to (including class-room communities).
      - A third feature of these theories is that it is within those communities that standards lie. The norms for testing the quality of a performance are determined by groups, not individuals, and one’s performance is assessed through genuine participation.
      - Although solitude and peaceful silence provide good opportunities for learning, the social occasions of conversation, discussion, joint work, and debate also play a critical role in learning.
      - A final feature of these theories is that they highlight the situated nature of learning, that is, that we learn in particular situations and contexts.
        
        Scholars have also discovered that learners who under-stand more about their own learning—researchers call this a metacognitive awareness—have greater capacity to transfer their learning to new problems and contexts.
    - - Critical to teachers’ conceptualizing their students as resources is knowledge of the homes and cultures of stu-dents (e.g., Knapp and Shields 1991).
      - Understanding these cultural differences, many scholars argue, would help teachers draw on students’ experiences within classrooms, enabling teachers to make more explic-it and meaningful connections to students’ communities.
      - They believe that individual differences produce a range of ideas and problem-solving strategies for students’ discussion and reflection.
      - However, we have noted that there are three themes that run across many theories
        
        that learning is both individual and social
        
        that students are resources to be tapped, not obstacles to be overcome.
        
        that students are active constructors of their own knowledge
    - - Students construct meaning
      - Teachers become responsible for diagnos-ing students’ interpretations and helping them alter, edit, and enrich them.
      - Sfard (1998) argued, in fact, that we need multiple metaphors for learning and that to throw one out in favor of another is dangerous.
    - - Students need to
        
        (Bruner 1960/1977; Dewey 1902/1956; Schwab 1978a).
        
        read primary sources and work on their own historical interpretations so that they are better able to critique the ones they read
        
        do statistical analyses of problems that they themselves identify so that they might be better consumers of statis-tics used daily by the press.
        
        write, the reformers argue, so that they can read critically and not be persuaded by spurious text
      - It is no longer enough that students quietly master only the facts and rules of a discipline. Contemporary educational reform demands that students have a more flexible under-standing of mathematics and language arts, biology and physics, and geography and history. They must know the basics, but they must also know how to use those basics to identify and solve nontraditional problems.
  - - - International comparisons, including the work of TIMSS researchers (e.g., Schmidt and others 1996) and Ma (1999), suggest that students in the United States typically get fed a diet of thin content, “a mile wide and an inch deep,” as Schmidt is often quoted as saying (e.g., Schmidt, McKnight, and Raizen 1996). Both in survey and video-tape analyses, TIMSS researchers found that U.S. students were exposed to a curriculum that was thin and fragment-ed. “The content appears to be less advanced and is pre-sented in a more piecemeal and prescriptive way” (Stigler and Hiebert 1999, p. 57)
    - - Coach
    - - Perhaps the most significant implication of these ideas about learning and knowledge is that they imply that thoughtful teachers are intellectuals who think both about subject matter and students, constructing bridges between the two.