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7.5.5 (2) (WAN Technologies (Point-to-point Protocol (makes use of two…

- - - - Link Control Protocol (LCP), is used when establishing, configuring and testing the data link connection
      - Network Control Protocol
        (NCP), establishes and configures different network layer protocols (e.g.,Internetwork packet exchange [IPX])
    - - PPP provides a single, preestablished WAN communication path from the customer premises to a remote network, usually reached through a carrier network, such as a telephone company.
  - - - how connections between data terminal equipment and data communications or circuit terminating equipment are maintained
        
        for remote terminal access and computer communications in public data networks (PDNs)
  - - - that uses a standard encapsulation technique to handle multiple virtual circuits between connected devices.
    - - low-cost, widely available LAN technology used in WAN
        point-to-point connections.
  - - - ATM is based on the use of a cell (a fixed-size data block) switching and multiplexing technology standard that combines the benefits of circuit switching (guaranteed capacity and constant transmission delay) with those of packet switching (flexibility and efficiency for intermittent traffic).
        
        ATM creates fixed routes between two points before data transfer begins, which differs from TCP/IP, where data is divided into packets, each of which takes a different route to get to its destination.
  - - - MPLS assigns short labels to network packets that describe how to forward them through the network.
      - MPLS operates at a layer that is generally considered to lie between traditional definitions of OSI Layer 2 (data link layer) and Layer 3 (network layer), and thus is often referred to as a layer 2.5 protocol.
  - - - • Dedicated, point-to-point, public network access on the local loop.
        
        Local loops are generally the final segment of the path between a network service provider’s (NSP) central office and the customer site.
      - • Delivers high-bandwidth data rates to dispersed customers at low cost through the existing telecommunications infrastructure
      - • Always-on access, which eliminates call setup and makes it ideal for Internet/intranet and remote LAN access
- - - - When a link is established, modems operating at both ends of it automatically negotiate the fastest and safest standard that the line and
        
        the modems themselves can use, establishing speed, parity, cryptographic algorithm and compression
      - For transmission purposes, modems disassemble bytes into a sequence of bits that are sent sequentially to the line.
        
        At the receiving end, these bits must be reassembled into bytes.
      - A main task of the modems at both ends is to maintain their synchronization so the receiving device knows when each byte starts and ends.
        
        two methods
        
        Synchronous transmission
        
        Bits are transmitted without interruption at a constant speed. The sending modem uses a specific character when it starts transmitting a data block to “synchronize” the receiving device
        
        more efficient
        
        Asynchronous transmission
        
        The transmitting device marks the beginning and end of a byte by sending a “start” and a “stop” bit before and after each data byte.
        
        less efficient
  - - - can allocate portions of its total bandwidth and use each portion as a separate signal link.
    - - • Time-division multiplexing (TDM)—Information from each data channel is allocated bandwidth, based on preassigned time slots, regardless of whether there are data to transmit.
      - • Asynchronous time division multiplexing (ATDM)—Information from data channels is allocated bandwidth as needed via dynamically assigned time slots.
      - • Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)—Information from each data channel is allocated bandwidth, based on the signal frequency of the traffic.
      - • Statistical multiplexing—Bandwidth is allocated dynamically to any data channels that have the information to transmit.
- - - - (hope to hope)
  - - - accomplished by breaking a message into transmission units, called packets, and routing them individually through the network, depending on the availability of a channel for each packet.
        
        The transmission cost is by packet and not by message, route or distance.
        
        Sophisticated error and flow control procedures are applied to each link by the network.
  - - - The connection, once established, is used exclusively by the two subscribers for the duration of the call.
        
        network does not provide any error or flow control on the transmitted data, so this task must be performed by the user.
  - - - disadvantages are low bandwidth and limited performance.
- - - - Microwave radio provides line-of-sight transmission of voice and data through the air.
        
        Historically, analog microwave circuits supplied the majority of long-haul low-speed data and voice transmission.
        
        when budget is low for fiber optics this may be considered
    - - contain several receiver/amplifier/transmitter sections called transponders
        
        has individual transmitter sites and sends narrow
        beams of microwave signals to the satellite.
        
        can carry large amounts of information at a time, the disadvantage is a bigger delay compared to all of the previous media, due to the “jump” from the earth to the satellite and bac