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Grammar (Clauses (Types (Adverbial clauses work like adverbials within a…

- - - - Yes/No - expect the answer yes or no
      - Question word questions, begin with who, which, what, when, where, why, how
      - Either/or questions, giving a choice of two possible answers
      - Agreement seeking, eg didn't we.
    - - Defining relative clauses help define the noun which they modify, eg 'The book I finished yesterday is absolutely gripping'. Seely p. 45
      - Non-defining relative clauses provide additional information which does not define the noun, usually enclosed between commas; eg 'My uncle, who lives in Bradford, is staying with us a few days.' Seely, p. 45
    - - Infinitive clauses can be the subject of the main clause (eg To err is human); object of the main clause (eg They want to succeed); subject compliment of the main clause (eg The real problem is to win the first round)
      - -ING clauses can be the subject of the main clause (eg Eating ice-cream is my idea of heaven); the object of the main clause (eg They adore ski-ing in Austria); the subject compliment of the main clause (eg The real problem is winning the first round)
    - - Time (Temporal clauses) - introduced by after, as, before, since, until, when, while ; indicate the time relationship between two events (eg The party ended after I left; After the party ended I left) Seely p. 113
      - Place - introduced by where, wherever, everywhere; give information about the place of the main clause (eg I found the keys where Sheila put them)
      - Manner - introduced by as if, as, as though, just as, much as; answer the question 'How?'; provide information about the main clause (eg I feel as though a brick has been dropped on my head); non-finite introduced by as if, as though (eg He behaved as if in a trance)
      - Reason - introduced by as, because, since; answer the question 'Why?' for the main clause (eg Since it's Thursday she won't be in the main office until ten)
      - Purpose - introduced by so, so that, in order that; non-finite introduced by to, so as to, in order to; also answer question 'Why?' but refers to intention ( eg They signed the contract without reading it to save time)
      - Result - introduced by so, and so, so that, in such a way that, so __ that, such (a) __ that; provides information about the results or the action in the main clause (eg We arrived at the theatre late so we missed most of the first act)
      - Condition (Conditional clauses) - introduced by if, unless; enable us to make a variety of statements in which the truth or otherwise of the main clause is dependent on the truth of the subordinate clause (eg If you don't stop doing that I shall call the police) Seely p. 119
      - Concession - introduced by although, despite, even though, even if, except that, much as, not that, though, whereas, while/whilstprovide some kind of contrast between the main clause and the subordinate clause (eg Although she stumbled, she went on to win the race) Can also be used to comment on the meaning of the sentence as a whole - (eg As I understand it, as __ said). Non-finite clauses include to be fair, broadly speaking. Seely p. 122
  - - - Subject, usually tells us what the clause is about; in a statement sentence, can be a noun, pronoun or noun phrase; is usually at or near the beginning of a clause & before a verb; eg. Journalists are still being arrested. Seely, p. 72
      - Verb, gives information about the action/ develops the subject in some way. At the heart of the clause is the verb; a single word or group of words eg 'ran', 'had been running'; used to express an action eg she escaped, express a state eg she slept, link a subject with the latter part of the sentence eg 'She was happy. Seely p. 49-50
      - Object, gives information about the person or thing affected by the action; in a statement sentence, usually comes after the verb. Pronouns as objects frequently change form eg I, me. Seely p. 74 Direct object - directly affected by the action of the verb eg. Mary kept her brother a place in the queue Indirect object - not directly impacted by the action of the verb eg Mary kept her brother a place in the queue Seely p. 77
      - Complement, related to the verb 'complete'; subject complement completes the meaning of the subject eg, the directors were delighted, can be noun, pronoun, adjective, adjective phrase; object complement completes the meaning of the object eg. The news made Peter very happy. Seely p. 79
      - Adverbials can be an adverb, adverb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase; add information - when, where, how, why, how much; add focus, add information - adjuncts; convey attitude - disjuncts; linking parts of a text together - conjuncts. Seely p. 83
- - - - Referring words (eg. pronouns, determiners, auxillary verbs) Seely, p. 131.
      - Ellipsis occurs when one or more words are omitted from the text to avoid repetition (eg. I feared I had lost my wallet and I had) Seely, p. 131
      - Sentence adverbials - conjuncts and disjuncts are used to link different parts together; adding and listing, giving examples, saying things another way, cause and result, contrasts and alternatives, concession (eg meanwhile, further more, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, nevertheless, however, Seely p. 133-5
- - - - Proper nouns (people, people, place or thing that is unique - spelt with a capital letter, Seely p.20)
      - Common nouns
        
        Countable (can be counted and have plural form)
        
        Uncountable (usually abstract ideas like 'Innocence', or which describe volume like 'mud' or 'snow'. Can sometimes be used in the plural eg butter, Seely p. 21)
      - Abstract nouns refer to feelings, ideas & other mental constructs, eg happiness
      - Concrete nouns can be experienced using the 5 senses
      - Gerund or verbal noun, the 'ing' form of a verb, partly a noun and partly a verb eg smoking
    - - Express an action eg She fled
      - Express a state eg She dreamed
      - Link subject with latter part of the sentence eg She was alone
      - Form Seely p.214
        
        Stem: walk
        
        Present tense: walk/walks
        
        Past tense: walked
        
        Present participle: walking
        
        Past participle: walked
        
        Irregular verbs also have the above forms, but in an irregular format
        
        Past & present tense forms are described as finite, meaning they are complete and stand in their own, Seely p. 53
      - Classification, Seely p.54
        
        Main verbs
        
        Transitive
        
        Active - eg 'Your dog bit me'; 'Henderson & Co. demolished the old chapel'
        
        Passive - as if the object of a sentence gets a voice of its own, eg I was bitten by your dog; The old chapel was demolished by Henderson & Co.
        
        Intransitive verbs do not require an object eg groan, laugh; 'The injured man was groaning', Seely p. 54
        
        Linking verbs complete the subject, in subject + verb + complement structures eg 'She became a special constable'; 'Her parents were very pleased.' Most common is 'be'; other linking verbs include feel, smell, look, sound grow. Seely p. 80
        
        Ditransitive verbs can take two objects; both direct & indirect. Seely p. 77
        
        Phrasal verbs - made up of verb plus adverb, eg The union called off the strike
        
        Prepositional verbs - a verb followed by a preposition eg account for; 'He was looking at the notice'
        
        Auxiliary verbs work with the main verb to complete the verb phrase, eg be, shall, can, have, Seely p. 59
        
        Primary auxiliary - 'be', 'have' and 'do' have a dual function. They can work as auxiliaries eg 'The company is losing a lot of money; & can stand on their own as main verbs, eg 'She has a lot of experience in this field, Seely p. 59
        
        Modal auxiliaries refer not to actual events, but to possible events or the likelihood/ desirability of something happening, eg 'The job will be finished tomorrow'; 'The job might be finished tomorrow.'; 'The job should be finished tomorrow.'
      - Tense & 'tense' - English verbs are inflected for the present and past; eg finish, finished. In grammatical terms this is called tense. When something happens in the future, we add auxiliaries eg will finish; not strictly tense in grammatical terms, thus 'tense'. Seely, p. 63
        
        Active & Passive - All 'tenses' can occur in the passive voice, but some are fairly uncommon, eg I have been bitten; I have been being bitten, Seely p. 65
        
        Modal possibilites include I could have walked, I must walk
        
        Complete explanations of each tense with all possible uses plus examples, Seely p. 65-69
      - Tense & aspect - Aspect adds information to when something happened: Simple 'I walk', Continuous 'I am walking, Perfect 'I have walked', Perfect continuous 'I have been walking'; past, present & future combine to make 12 'tenses' in all. Seely p. 64
        
        Time words & phrases - Tense does not always indicate when something happened. We can say for example, 'This fella goes into a pub & says to the Landlord...' or 'I walk to work every day' which is presetn tense but not necessarily happening now. We therefore use words like yesterday, today, tomorrow, this year, last year etc, to specify; Seely p. 70
    - - Qualitative adjectives tell us about the qualities of a person thing or idea, eg fast, easy. They can be graded, eg fairly easy or extremely easy. They can compare, as in easier or easiest. Thus they come in 3 forms - absolute (easy), comparative (easier) & superlative (easiest)
      - Classifying adjectives place items into catagories eg annual, nuclear, actual and can't normally be graded.
  - - - Personal pronouns can stand for people, animals or even abstract nouns; come in three forms - subjective, objective, possessive eg I/me/mine, we/us/ours, they/them/theirs, it/it/its
      - Possessive eg mine, yours
      - Reflexive - subject and object refer to same person, eg myself, ourselves; 'He cut himself with a knife'
      - Demonstrative, eg this, that, those
      - Indefinite - range from general 'all' to vague 'someone'; eg somebody, nobody, all, nothing everything, Seely p. 30
      - Interrogative, used in questions; eg who, whom, whose, what, which
      - Relative, used to form relative clauses, eg who, whom, that
- - - - Determiners go before a noun that can't stand alone, eg a book, the camel, my, this, any; is possible to have more than one determiner together, eg 'all the fifteen cats' Seely p.33-4
      - Modifiers provide more information
        
        Premodifiers come before the noun, most commonly adjectives eg the low red car; or other nouns eg the England team; -ing form of verbs eg the distressing news; -ed form of verbs eg a broken milk bottle
        
        Postmodifiers come after the noun, most commonly a prepositional phrase eg The last person in my thoughts was Rosie; or a relative clause eg 'The last person I was expecting to see was Rosie'
- - - - tense based changes (see words)
    - - singular
      - plural
      - possession
    - - subject of the clause
      - object of the clause