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DS1: Weimar (Stresemann (Foreign policy achievements (Locarno Pact –…
DS1: Weimar
Stresemann
Who was Stresemann
Leading member of every German government 1923-29
Right-wing politician with wide support
German Chancellor for a few months in 1923
Slowly built up German prosperity and presided over a period and hope and optimism
Committed nationalist but believed Germany's problems could be solved only by moderation and working with other countries
Extremely skilful and shrewd
Instituted the policy of Fulfilment
Complying with the terms of Versailles in order to gain readmission to the international community
Why was the Dawes Plan needed
Was close to bankruptcy – 1919 and needed an injection of capital to get the economy going
Germany's attempts to pay reparations instalments worsened the situation
France refused permission to suspend payments
1922 – unable to make the full annual payment
Needed a loan to help pay these early instalments
French occupation of the Ruhr
Paralysed German industry
Effect on economy was catastrophic
Hyperinflation
Need to stabilise the mark
New currency and massive loan were the aims of Stresemann
Needed to rebuild industry, to increase employment, to increase international trade and increase profits. Also help pay back reparation instalments
Stresemann's economic achievements
Ended hyperinflation by calling in the mark, burning them, and replacing them with a new currency, the Rentenmark
Got industrial production moving by calling off the passive resistance
1929 Young Plan further reduced the German reparations bill
1924 Dawes Plan scaled down German reparations and spread them over a longer period and provided for loans of 800Mn marks from the USA
1928 – Industrial production was back to pre-war levels, reparations being paid and exports were increasing
BUT
Loans could be called in at short notice so economic recovery was precarious
Owners of businesses and property in cities and industrial workers were better off but peasant farmers and small businesses did not fare so well
Agricultural sector was already in serious trouble and growth in industry had begun to slow in 1927
Foreign policy achievements
Locarno Pact – Germany agrees to accept her frontiers with France and Belgium
1926 Germany admitted to LoN
Steady work to reverse the ToV
1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact – Germany agrees to renounce war as an instrument of policy
1929 Allies withdrew from Rhineland
BUT – Stresemann attacked by nationalists for accepting Treaty by joining League and signing Locarno Pact, Communists attacked Locarno as plot against USSR
How much political stability did Stresemann bring?
Democracy seemed to be working, no more rebellions or uprisings
Extremists parties were not very popular – 1928 elections Nazis gained < 3% of the vote
BUT
There were 4 different Chancellors
~30% of the electorate voted for parties opposed to the Republic
1926 – Hindenburg elected president, opposed to democracy
Nazis and Communists were gradually building up their party organisations
Long Questions
How significant was Stresemann in the recovery of Germany after 1923?
Significant:
Economic
Rentenmark
Increased production
Negotiated Dawes and Young Plans
Increased production and investment
Overcame the Ruhr crisis and invasion of France
International
Increased foreign confidence
Greater acceptance by international community through treaties
League of Nations increased business confidence
Began paying reparations again
Vibrant arts scene
Reduction in support for minority parties
Things quietened down
But:
Any recovery was based on American loans
Could not foresee the Wall Street Crash and Great Depression
His death in 1929 undermined confidence
Weakness of coalition governments and the Constitution
Conservative and agricultural communities were critical
Still high unemployment
Many Germans still resentful of hyperinflation
How important was the Treaty of Versailles in causing the domestic problems of the Weimar Republic in 1929?
Important:
War Guilt clause led to humiliation and resentment, especially ex-soldiers and generals
Stab-in-the-back myth
Reparations led to economic hardship
Failure to pay reparations led to the Ruhr invasion in 1922 and subsequent hyperinflation
German territorial losses led to displaced German families
Overseas territories lost – German status as a world power decreased – helped extreme right parties gain support
Military terms left Germany weak and defenceless
Unemployed soldiers led to Freikorps growth – Kapp and Munich Putsch
But:
Germany already bankrupt
Naval Blockade
Left-wing extremism already causing civil unrest
Constitution gave emergency powers to President which weakened democracy
Reichstag weak due to Proportional Representation
Stresemann was able to deal with the economic problems (hyperinflation, reparation plans, etc.)
Before
Naval blockade of Germany
Many civilians died from malnutrition
Cut off imports of fodder for animals
Cut off supplies of nitrates
» affected production of fertilisers
» affected production of explosives
Iron and steel shortage
Government had to slaughter 1/3 of all pigs in 1915
German people less keen to support the war effort
Daily rations dropped to 1000 calories per person
Sep-Nov 1918
By Sep: blockade » people surviving on turnips and bread
Flu epidemic swept across the country killing thousands
Oct – von Hipper and Scheer planned a final attack on the Royal Navy
Sailors at the naval base at Wilhelmshaven mutinied
Some crews refused to obey orders
On three ships there was outright sabotage
4th Nov – sailors in Kiel mutinied
» setting up of soldier's council
By evening, Kiel was under control of 40,000 rebellious sailors, soldiers and workers
6th Nov - Wilhelmshaven fell to the sailors
7th November – Kurt Eisner declared Bavaria to be a socialist republic, Hanover, Brunswick, Frankfurt and Munich had fallen to the revolution
9th Nov – Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated and went into exile in the Netherlands. Ebert announced that Germany was a republic with himself as president and Scheidemann as chancellor
Council of People's Representatives was formed to establish the way forward
Spartacists founded the Communist Party of Germany
Political situation in Germany after WWI
Kaiser Wilhelm fled the country / abdicated
Ebert announced Germany was a republic
The new republic was to be democratic
Attempted coups from the communists and far right
Elections held for a Nation Assembly to draw up a new constitution (KA the Weimar Constitution)
Unrest in Berlin » National Assembly met at Weimar
Impact of WWI on Germany
Psychological:
The proud German army had been defeated
Divided German society – workers had wage restrictions, factory owners made vast fortunes
Many people despised the new leaders, believing that the army had been betrayed by them
» Germany was depressed and humiliated
Social:
Flu epidemic killing thousands of people
600,000 widows and 2Mn children w/o fathers
Severe food shortages – turnips and bread
Economic:
Industrial production dropped to about 2/3 of 1913 levels
1/3 of state budget went on war pensions
Effect of ToV on Germany
Lost 10% of land, all colonies, 12.5% of population, 16% of coal, 48% of iron and steel industry and most of its armed forces
Most Germans were horrified
Supporters of the government felt betrayed by the Allies – not be punished so harshly now the Kaiser had gone
Opponents of the government furious with Ebert and the socialists
Stab in the back myth – army could have fought on and won but were betrayed by leaders of the Weimar Republic
Beginning
How was the Weimar Republic born
Uprisings by workers and soldiers in other German ports led by the socialists
Independant Socialist Republic declared in Bavaria
Kaiser abdicated and left Germany
Ebert, leader of the Socialists, became the new leader of the Republic, signed an Armistice with the Allies and made plans to draw up a new constitution
Naval mutiny at Kiel triggered other revolts
Reaction to the new Republic
Ebert opposed by right wing politicians – many hoped for a return of the Kaiser
Many of the Kaiser's former advisers stayed in post in the army, judiciary and civil service and tried to restrict what the new government could do
Stab in the back myth developed
Ebert opposed by communists who wanted a communist revolution like in russia
Free elections held in Jan 1919 – Socialists won a majority and Ebert became the first president of the Weimar Republic
Main features of the Weimar Constitution
All Germans over 20 can vote for the Reichstag
Proportional Representation – number of votes was directly proportional to the number of seats
Head of State was the President – stayed out of government but in times of crises could rule directly. Also in charge of the armed forces and appointed judges
Chancellor appointed government ministers
Chancellor was appointed by the President but needed the support of half of the Reichstag
17 local governments (eg. Prussia, Bavaria, etc.) but their power was limited as much as possible
Weaknesses of the Constitution
Proportional Rep with many parties
Difficult for any party to maintain a workable parliamentary democracy
Frequent changes in the government / many elections
Inevitable succession of coalition governments
President could dismiss the Chancellor and could, under Article 48, suspend civil liberties and use force
Economic challenges facing the Weimar Republic
Heavily in debt
Signs of rising inflation
Close to bankruptcy – enormous expense of war
People living a 'hand to mouth' existence
Alsace-Lorraine returned to France – rich in iron ore
May have to pay huge sums of reparations
Saar Basin removed from German control for 15 years – major coalfield
Industries converted from war production to producing materials for infrastructure and consumer goods
Key Questions
How significant were economic problems as a reason for the instability of the Weimar Republic up to 1923
Significant
Germany was virtually bankrupt after WWI
National income was about one third of 1913 levels
Industrial production was 2/3 of 1913 level
ToV took 16% of coal and 48% of iron industry
1921 – Reparations set at £6.6Bn
Failure to pay reparations in 1922
» French invasion of Ruhr
Hyperinflation
» loss of savings, huge price rises
But:
Weimar Germany was an unstable democracy based on a revolution
Many in traditional elites, military and civilians with nationalist sympathies despised the Weimar Constitution
» 'Stab in the back' myth
War had deepened class divisions in Germany – communists, freikorps & nazis
Other terms of the Treaty caused great resentment – War Guilt, loss of territory and colonies
Germany was an international pariah – no membership of the League of Nations, etc.
How significant were the Spartacists to the instability of Germany, 1918-23?
Significant
Committed to the overthrow of the new German govenrment
Direct threat to new German democracy and existing elites
1919 – attempted revolution – showed weakness of new government (had to rely on Freikorps), led to more left-wing uprisings
Communism remained a significant influence in German politics throughout 1920s
Led to permanent hostility between communists and socialists
But:
Uprising was easily crushed by Freikorps
Divided on tactics and not unified
Leader were murdered
Army loyal to new regime
There are more significant factors, eg. War Guilt, weaknesses of Constitution, right-wing putsch, Ruhr invasion, hyperinflation etc.
How important were reparations as a cause of the problems of the Weimar government between 1919 and 1924?
Important:
£6.6Bn reparations claimed to be too high
Ebert and colleagues seen as the 'November Criminals'
War Guilt resented
Contributed to the opposition in the army (Kapp Putsch)
Occupation of the Ruhr and hyperinflation
Led to opportunities for Nazis to exploit (Munich Putsch etc.)
But:
Annual payment was only 2% of output
Stresemann, Dawes Plan and Rentenmark resulted from reparations and went some way to stabilising Germany and thus were a positive outcome
More important factors:
Territorial losses
Proportional Representation
Communist uprisings
How significant was political disorder in causing the weakness of the Weimar Republic in its early years?
Significant:
Worker's soviets, Spartacists and Bavarian Republic – Red rising in the Ruhr
Faced with threat of disbandment of the Freikorps
Kapp Putsch, Munich Putsch
Army would not support the government
November criminals and stab in the back
Disorder of communists and SA on the streets
But:
Other issues more significant
Considerable success in face of above difficulties
Use of Freikorps against Spartacists
KPD-led Berlin strikes
Worker support against Kapp Putsch
Nazis only significant in Bavaria
How significant were the military terms of the Treaty of Versailles as a cause of the problems of Weimar Germany, 1919-23?
Significant:
Massive reductions in armed forces left Germany humiliated and defenceless (100,000 soldiers, 15,000 sailors, 6 battleships, no U-boats, air force, tanks, artillery, conscription)
War Guilt clause caused many Germans to resent the Settlement and the Government
Rhineland was demilitarised for 15 years and left Germany open to French invasion
Left tens of thousands ex-soldiers unemployed after the war
» many turned to right-wing extremist groups
But:
Loss of Saar coalfields for 15 years
Loss of overseas colonies reduced foreign trade
Political unrest
Hyperinflation
Weakness of Constitution
Large reparations payments
Up to 1923
Why was the Weimar unstable up to 1923
Serious threat from the Communists and the Right
Ebert and Republic blamed for harsh terms of the Treaty
Faced huge economic problems and could not pay the reparations – printed money and caused hyperinflation
The success depended on the German people accepting instant change from the old autocratic system to the new democratic one
Why was it difficult to recover economically
WWI was very expensive – had hoped to pay by imposing huge reparations on defeated countries
Treaty was harsh economically – £6.6Bn, paid annually – 2% of Germany's output – put an intolerable strain on the economy
Government printed worthless money
Nothing with which to trade
Events contributing to the crisis year of 1923
French occupation of the Ruhr – large quantities of goods going to Belgium and France
» not enough goods in Germany
» prices rose, worsening inflation
1922 – Germany failed to make reparation payment
» France invaded the Ruhr – rich in coal and iron
Government responded by ordering a strike (passive resistance)
France expelled 100,000
German industrial production ground to a halt and cause a currency collapse
Hyperinflation
No goods to trade
» government printed money to pay debts
So much money in circulation
» wages rocketed out of control
» paper money became worthless
Middle-class Germans had savings wiped out
Pensions became worthless
Munich Beer Hall Putsch
Lack of respect for democratic governments
Hitler hijacked a local government meeting in Munich
How did it survive
Effective government actions
Ebert's action against the Communists
Stresemann's currency reforms
Popular support
Most Germans supported the Republic
Responded to call for passive resistance in the Ruhr, went on strike to support the Kapp Putsch
Working class people voted for the SPD
Weakness of opponents
Communists lacked support – never gained more than 15% of Reichstag
Right-wing groups were seen as extremists, had little support, had no outstanding leaders
Army was suspicious of right
Political threat
Why was there political opposition to the Weimar
Republic associated with the Treaty – Nazis associated is with 'November Criminals'
Right
Right wing – nearly all the Kaiser's former advisers remained in their positions in army, judiciary and civil service – restricted what the government could do
Many hoped for a return to rule by the Kaiser
Right wanted a strong one party government
Left
Left – Communist party KA Spartacists – like the Bolsheviks
Left wanted a communist style government
Argued against Ebert's plans for democracy
Wanted to be ruled by workers' councils or soviets
Associated with weak economy and high inflation
Not used to coalition government
Threat from Left
Spartacists 1919
Seized newspaper offices in Berlin
General strike organised
Barricades in the street and armed gang fighting
Supported a military coup over Ebert's government
Some leaders attempted to persuade state military regiments in Berlin to their side
Armed presence was supposed to instigate fighting
Unsuccessful – most soldiers had gone home or remained loyal to their regiment
Spartacists attacked by the Freikorps – group of ex-soldiers opposed to communism – many casualties, Freikorps won
Government had few troops – army had been disbanded after the war
Bavarian Uprising 1919
Bavaria was still an independent state, led by Kurt Eisner
When he was assassinated, Communists seized the chance to declare a soviet Republic
Revolt crushed by Freikorps again – 600 communists killed
Red Rising in the Ruhr 1920
Further communist agitation
Clashes of Communists with police, army and Freikorps
2000 casualties
Ebert's suppression of the threats gained him popularity but created lasting bitterness between Socialists and Communists
Threats from the Right
Some wanted a strong army, expansionist foreign policy and liked the Kaiser's dictatorial style of government
Kapp Putsch 1920
Dr Kapp led an attempt to take power
5000 Freikorps
Unhappy with weimar and wanted strong leadership – idea of motivation
Army refused to fire on Freikorps
Government saved by German people, especially industrial workers – declared a general strike
» after a few days Kapp realised he could not succeed and fled the country
1922 – foreign minister Walther Rathenau assassinated by right-wing extremists
1923 – Hitler's Munich Putsch
Freikorps
Ex-soldiers
Hated communists and helped put down communist uprisings
Crushed the Spartacist League
Murdered Liebknecht and Luxemburg
1919 – defeated the Bavarian Soviet Republic
Used by government to protect borders against the Red Army
Many joined Hitler and the NSDAP, including Ernst Rohm
Crushed strikes in the Ruhr, Rhineland and Saxony