Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Course MM, Structure of Woody Plants (Vascular Cambium (Initiation of the…

- - - - shrubs:
        
        azaleas
        
        oleanders
        
        roses
      - trees:
        
        firs
        
        sycamores
        
        pines
        
        chestnuts
- - - - all secondary phloem between the vascular cambium and the innermost cork cambium
    - - all tissues outside the innermost cork cambium
    - - layers of cork cells and the phelloderm
    - - cork cell also called phellem cell
  - - - some species it comes before a twig or root is even 1 year old
  - - - can be easy to see in species with smooth bark
      - can be impossible to see in plants with thick rough bark
      - more active than adjacent regions that produce only ordinary impermeable cork
      - contain more layers of cells and protrude outward
      - intercellular spaces penetrate the cork layer, creating a diffusion pathway for oxygen
- - - - conduct for usually less than 1 year
- - - - softer consistency
      - few or no fibers
      - woods from conifers
    - - contain fibers making them strong
      - wood of all basal angiosperms and eudicots
    - - rays
        
        xylem
        
        contains parenchyma, arranged as uniseriate, biseriate, or multiseriate masses
      - develops from the ray initials
    - - contains tracheary elements
        
        carry out longitudinal conduction of water through the wood
      - derived from the fusiform initials
  - - - bubbles of protoplasm through the pits into the vessels, forming plug
  - - - also can be called growth ring
      - early wood and late wood, the 2 making up 1 year
    - - large number of newly formed vessels are conducting rapidly
      - aka summer wood
    - - high proportion of wide vessels
      - aka spring wood
- - - - fusiform initials
        
        irregularly, w/out any horizontal patterns (nonstoried cambium)
        
        regular horizontal rows (storied cambium)
      - ray initials
        
        short vertical rows, 1 cell wide, 2 cells wide, or many cells wide
  - - - ray initials #
      - fusiform initials #
    - - connects on each side with the fascicular cambia
      - mature parenchyma cells between vascular bundles that come out of cell cycle arrest and resume mitosis
    - - cells that continue to divide instead of maturing
    - - never occurs in flowers, fruits, or seeds
      - one of the meristems that produce the secondary plant body
  - - - fusiform initial undergoes longitudinal cell division w/ a parallel wall
        
        produces 2 elongate cells
        
        the other differentiates into a cell of secondary xylem or secondary phloem #
        
        one cell continues to be a fusiform cell
- - - - only 2 leaves
        
        grow perennially from a basal meristem
      - short wide stem
      - few living plants exist only in deserts in South Africa
    - - leaves are reduced and scale like
      - common in desert regions
      - these plants are tough shrubs and bushes
    - - mostly vines or small shrubs
        
        shrubs have broad leaves
- - - - short shoots
      - long shoots
- - - - resembled trimerophytes
        
        having little webbing between ultimate branches
      - vascualr cambium & secondary growth
        
        but primary xylem was a protostele
      - vary in stature
        
        shrubs to large trees
    - - pollen chamber
        
        a holding area
        
        space at the top of a megasporqangium
      - microphyle
        
        hole in the integument that permits sperm cells to swim to the egg
      - integument
        
        layer of tissure surounding the megasporangium
    - - seeds were not produced
      - reproduction is heterosporous
      - trees up to 8.4m tall
        
        abundant wood and secondary phloem
      - more derived from the progymnosperm
- - - - this is active transport
  - - - little biological significance
      - allow all solutes to move through them
    - - do not allow anything to pass through
    - - allow only certain substances to pass through
- - - - when the protoplast pulls completely away from the wall and shrinks
    - - the point at which the protoplast has lost just enough water to pull slightly away from the wall
- - - - a fine network adjacent to the plasma membrane inner surface of uninjured sieve elements
  - - - mass transfer divided by the cross-sectional area of phloem
- - - - potassium cannot leave
- - - - between cells that are not close neighbors
    - - distances of a few cell diameters or less
- - - - waters molecules interact with many other substances
    - - any force acting on one molecule acts on all neighboring ones as well
  - - - diffusion from intracellular spaces to the atmosphere
    - - water loss directly through the cuticle
- - - - neither parent train dominates the other
    - - 2 different alleles for a gene
    - - 2 identical alleles for a gene
    - - F1
      - offspring of parents crossbreeding
    - - paretns
  - - - used to analyze/understand the results of a cross
    - - plants own pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs
  - - - homozygous recessvies that are kept pure
  - - - the trait that is not dominant
    - - the trait that is dominant
- - - - a piece of DNA becomes tangled and breaks
        
        during repair, it is put in backwards
    - - addition of extra DNA
    - - piece of DNA is lost
    - - affecting the least amount of DNA
      - smallest mutation
  - - - 2 basics forms:
        
        transposon
        
        carries genes that code for protein
        
        protein not associated w transposition
        
        like an insertion sequence
        
        except it may be much longer
        
        insertion sequences
        
        contain the genes that code for enzymes actually involved in cutting the insertion sequence out
        
        only a few thousand base pairs long
      - pieces of DNA that readily change their position from chromosomes
    - - can be caused by many methods
        
        a variety of enzymes cut and rejoin DNA
    - - due to short regions of self-complementary sequence
      - several ways
    - - something that causes mutations
        
        radiation
        
        certain chemicals
        
        X-rays
        
        UV light
  - - - unless it occurs in species that undergo extensive vegetative reproduction
  - - - the minority beneficial
        
        natural selection eliminates the deleterious mutations
    - - more likely to produce less useful than a more useful form
- - - - the alleles of one gene move independently of the others
  - - - also known as centimorgan
      - how space between mutant alleles is measured
    - - first 2 cells from a crossing over
    - - last 2 cells from a crossing over
    - - they usually don't undergo independent assortment
    - - the 2 genes become linked
- - - - forms 2 new complete molecules
  - - - DNA polymerase #
        
        this adds deoxyribonucleotides onto the end of primer RNA
        
        this replication is semiconservative replication
  - - - forms a "bubble"
- - - - presence can kill the plant
  - - - multiple copies
    - - genes still so similar to the wild-type
        
        they can be recognized as having originated as duplicates of it
    - - during second division of meiosis,
        
        the 2 chromatids may remain together,
        
        so 1 daughter cell receives both copies of the chromosome,
        
        whereas the other receives none
    - - all plants with an odd ploidy level
        
        are sterile like triploids
      - all plants with an even ploidy level:
        
        are fertile
        
        can undergo meiosis
      - plants w more than 2 sets of chromosomes
  - - - presence of spots or sectors that are white, red, or orange
        
        on an otherwise green plant
    - - from the maternal parent
    - - all genes in the nucleus undergo this
      - alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to the progeny
- - - - line indicating population stability
    - - predators functional response is dependent on prey density
    - - predators feeding rate and its handling time
        
        feeding rate will be faster if more prey are available
  - - - one organism restricts another organism's access to resources even though the first might not be using it
    - - resource competition occurs when the organism actually consume a shared resource
    - - if a species can increase from very low population density even w its competitor present
  - - - optimal forging theory produced
    - - probability that a particular prey individual will be encountered
      - probability that an attacked prey item will be successfully eaten
      - decision by the predator to attack an individual once it has been encountered
- - - - a plot of number of species in a region into various abundance classes
    - - relationship between area and species richness
- - - - single, elongate cells with spring-shaped walls ]
  - - - stalked, but apex is a set of radiating fingers
        
        project outwards
    - - umbrella shaped outgrowth
      - male gametophore
    - - no guard cells and cannot be closed
      - not stomata
      - large air chambers that open to the exterior
    - - the body
        
        a body without roots, stems, and leaves
    - - thallose liverworts
      - leafy liverworts
- - - - they grow, differentiate, mature and then die
  - - - cells lining the chamber grow into it and become antheridia
        
        as sperm cells mature, antheridia transform their chloroplast
- - - - archegonia
        
        shaped like a vase
        
        the eggs
      - antheridia
        
        a short stalk
        
        the sperm
      - all mosses are oogamous
      - produces gametangia
    - - prootonema #
        
        the entire network
      - growth begins when a spore germinates
        
        this cell undergoes mitosis
        
        then produces a branched system of similar cells
    - - rhizoids
        
        only anchor the stem, do not conduct water and minerals
        
        small, multicellular trichome-like structures
        
        located at base of stem]
      - majority of mosses lack leptoids and hydroids
        
        instead water is conducted along exterior of their stems
        
        by capillary actions
      - leptoids
        
        cells that resemble sieve cells
      - hydroids
        
        they conduct water & dissolved minerals
        
        cells that make up innermost cortex
    - - stems
        
        tissue called cortex\
        
        little tissue differentiation
      - all moss stems have leaves
      - gametophores
        
        grow close together
        
        leafy stems
  - - - if exposed to dry air for even a few minutes
        
        plant would dry out
        
        this is due to the lack of vascular tissue
      - have only a thin, incomplete cuticle
  - - - covers the apex of the sporangium
      - layer of cells derived from then neck of the archegonium
    - - cells breaking into 1 or 2 rows of complec teeth
    - - separates from the rest of the sporangium as cells are torn apart
      - apex of the sporangium differentiates as a caplike lid
    - - located between the foot and sporangium
      - a narrow stalk
    - - upper cell grows into a simple apical sporangium
    - - the basal cell, develops into a small bulbous tissue
- - - - hornworts
    - - mosses
    - - liverworts
- - - - house plants
        
        Maranta, Calathea, canna lilies, and gingers*
    - - wind pollinated
      - grasses, cattails, bromeliads, and sedges
    - - coconuts and dates are types of palm fruits
      - all species have simple leaves that are fully expanded by the wind
      - contains the palms
  - - - fused sides called septa
    - - the open areas that secret nectar
  - - - presence of spots or lines on the petals
      - rather ordinary nectaries formed at the bases of tepals or stamens
- - - - their pollen grains have only a single germination pore
  - - - water lilies
        
        large colorful flowers are pollinated by animals
        
        stems must be submerged under water
        
        small, soft-bodied herbs
        
        completely lack any wood
- - - - because their wood contains vessels, fibers, & parenchyma
    - - plane trees
      - alders
      - oaks
      - elms
  - - - these parts are arranged spirally
      - meaning it has all parts
        
        carpels
        
        occur in a superior position, above the other parts
        
        sepals
        
        stamens
        
        petals
- - - - do not release the seeds
    - - break open and release seeds
    - - those that are eaten during the natural see distribution process
    - - one that is not typically eaten by the natural seed-distributing animals
  - - - figs, mulberries, and pineapple
      - all of the individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
    - - raspberries
      - separate carpals of one gynoecium fuse during development
    - - most common kind
      - fruit develops from a single ovary or the fused ovaries of one flower
    - - term used if any nonovarian tissue is present
      - false fruit
    - - fruits containing only ovarian tissue
- - - - pollination of a carpal by pollen from the same flower or another flower by the same plant
  - - - partially buried ovaries
    - - above other flower parts
    - - located below the other organs
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpals that prevent pollen growth
  - - - has happened between flowers and birds and between flowers and bats
      - flowering becoming adapted for visitation by a particular insect
  - - - having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
    - - individuals that produce only stamen and individuals that produce only carpals
    - - sepals and petals
    - - flower that has both essential organs
    - - flowers that lack either or both essential organs
    - - stamens and carpals
- - - - the entire fruit wall
    - - innermost layer
    - - the flesh
      - middle layer
    - - the skin or peel
      - outer layer
  - - - also heteromorphic generations
      - life cycle with 2 generations (sporophyte and gametophyte)
    - - grow from megaspores
    - - grow from microspores
    - - spores can not undergo syngamy
        
        each undergoes mitosis and grows into a haploid plant called a gametophyte
      - gametes can fuse with other gametes
        
        produces the diploid zygote
        
        called syngamy/fertilization
    - - called the sporophyte plase
        
        sporophytes are always diploid
  - - - mature integuments that surround the nucleus
    - - endosperm is sparse or absent at maturity
    - - a mature seed in which endosperm is rather abundant
    - - 2 primordia that have grown from the end of the embryo
    - - stalk that pushes the embryo into the endosperm
  - - - lack 1 or 2 of the four basic appendages
    - - carpels
        
        inside the ovary are placentae
        
        this bears the ovules
        
        3 main parts
        
        ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
        
        style
        
        elevates the stigma to a useful position
        
        stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
        
        located at the highest level of the receptacle
        
        constitute the gynoecium
      - stamens
        
        pollen is produced in the anther
        
        2 parts
        
        the filament and anther
        
        male part of the flower
        
        androecium
        
        all the stamens
        
        above the petals
      - petals
        
        attract correct pollinators
        
        contain pigments other than chlorophyll
        
        perianth
        
        all the sepals and petals together
        
        corolla
        
        all petals together
        
        above the sepals
      - sepals
        
        calyx
        
        all the sepals together
        
        typically the thickest, toughest, & waxiest part of the flower
        
        modified leaves that surround and enclose the other flower parts
        
        lowermost and outermost of the appendages
    - - very end of the axis, where the other flower parts are attached
    - - the flower stalk
  - - - nourishes the development of the zygote
    - - this process is called double fertilization
      - product of the second sperm undergoing karyogamy with both polar nuclei
    - - fusion of the nuclei
    - - fusion of the protoplasts of the gametes
  - - - 7 cells are 1 large cell and 2 polar nuclei , 3 small antipodal cells, and an egg apparatus
      - embryo sac
        
        multinucleate megagametophyte
    - - germinates by producing a pollen tube
        
        pollen tube grows down the style and toward the ovary
      - microspore nucleus divides
        
        forming the large vegetative cell and small generative cell
        
        generative cell divides to form 2 sperm cells
- - - - individual parts become self-sufficient
        
        by adventitious roots
        
        adventitious buds may grow out while parent plant is still alive
      - large spreading or vining plant grows to several meters
- - - - NADH
      - 2 Pyruvate
        
        Converted to Ethanol
      - 2 ATP :star:
        
        :Also used for
        
        Ion Trainsport
        
        Microtubule Assembly
        
        Nucleic Acid Replication
        
        Protein Synthesis
  - - - Link Title
      - H2O
      - Around 30 ATP :star:
    - - Uses 2 Aceytl CoA
        
        2 ATP :star:
        
        2 FADH2
        
        4 CO2
        
        6 NADH
    - - Uses 2 Pyruvate
        
        2 Aceytl CoA
        
        2 NADH
        
        2 CO2
    - - Uses 1 Glucose
        
        2 NADH
        
        2 Pyruvate
        
        2 ATP :star:
  - - - Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus)
      - Voodoo lilly (Sauromatum guttatum)
  - - - phosphoglycolate
        
        glycolate
        
        glycine
        
        CO2 and H2O
        
        All energy wasted :red_cross:
      - 3-phosphoglycerate
  - - - Fatty acids to Acetyl CoA
    - - Fatty acids to Acetyl CoA
  - - - five-carbon sugars (ribose)
      - four-carbon sugars (erythrose)
        
        Lignin
        
        Anthocyanin pigments
- - - - distillation of fermented juices of agave plants
        
        mescal (from Agave americana)
        
        tequila (from Agave tequilana)
      - distillation of fermented molasses
        
        rum
      - distilled grain-based fermentations:
        
        whiskey
        
        80% corn, w/ rye and wheat
        
        gin
        
        fermentation of malted barley, corn, and rye
        
        vodka
        
        basically pure ethanol and water
      - distillation: raise concentration of ethanol and eliminate all flavors
    - - toxic to yeast = dealth :forbidden:
  - - - barley
        
        converts starch to sugar faster than other grains
        
        most common
      - rice
      - corn
      - wheat
  - - - large variety
        
        CHardonnay
        
        Merlot
        
        Cabernet Sauvignon
        
        Pinot Noir
  - - - 2 beers or 2 glasses of wine or 2 oz liquor
        
        lowers risk of heart disease :<3:
    - - death related
        
        1 to several college students die every year from drinking too much
        
        drunk driving
      - alcoholism
      - fetal alcohol syndrome
      - BAC of 0.4% is usually fatal
    - - isopropanol
        
        our bodies convert it into acetone
      - methanol
        
        very toxic
        
        can cause blindness
        
        our liver converts it into formaldehyde and formic acid, even more poisonous
    - - classified as a depressant
      - moderate drinking reduces focus and attention
      - body is able to detoxify in small amounts
        
        larger amounts cause death
        
        large amounts cause hangovers
- - - - Above 30°C, respiration isn't as fast
      - Above 40°C= enzyme damage/ disruption of organelle membranes
      - < 5°C respiration decreases
      - increase of 10°C, in range of 5°C-25°C, doubles respiration rate
  - - - other than chloroplasts
    - - After maturation, respirations slows so much it goes dormant
        
        No respiration occurs when dormant
    - - respiration remains steady until maturation, then respirations bursts
- - - - O2 must be consumed to oxidize all C and H
        
        RQ < 1.0, usually 0.7
    - - < O2 is needed to convert to CO2 and H2O
        
        RQ > 1.0
- - - - number of hours per day sunlight is available
    - - appears that to the left no photosynthesis occurs
    - - more light is available on a clear day not cloudy
      - light intensity or brightness
    - - noon is prime time for efficient photosynthesis
        
        for plants in deserts, grasslands, and the top layer
      - contains entire visible spectrum
    - - color or wavelengths it contains
  - - - euphorbias
      - lilies
      - bromeliads
      - many orchids
      - cactus family
  - - - this slows photosynthesis
      - water loss is reduced
      - leaf cells frequently pack together w/ no intracellular space
    - - inefficient for conserving water
      - this structure is excellent at absorbing CO2
      - palisade parenchyma above & spongy mesophyll below
  - - - has a very high affinity for CO2
    - - transported through
        
        concentrated in a leaf
        
        where then oxygen is kept away from RuBP carboxylase
  - - - water is conserved by stomata closing
- - - - Example: young white seedlings
        
        become photoautotrophic after emerging into sunlight
        
        white & heterotrophic while germinating underground
  - - - All animals
      - nonphotosynthetic prokaryotes
      - all completely parasitic plants : :
      - all fungi
    - - Obtains energy from this
  - - - all green plants
      - few bacteria capable of photosynthesis
      - all cyanobacteria
    - - used to assimilate small inorganic molecules
  - - - Respiration of organic compounds (indirectly)
      - Photosynthesis (direct)
- - - - requires new bonding orbitals
        
        electrons are carried here by NADPH
      - endergonic reactions driven by ATP :star: #
  - - - thylakoid lumen
        
        noncyclic electron transport
        
        when electrons flow smoothly from water to NADPH
        
        ATP Synthase
        
        synthesize ATP from ADP and phosphate
        
        enzymes and electron carriers of the photosystems are embedded in the membrane layer
      - stroma
        
        liquid surrounding the thylakoid system
      - grana
        
        frets are thylakoids that lie between grana
        
        set of thylakoids
      - chemiosmotic phosphorylation
        
        it is photophosphorylation
        
        light is involved
    - - Electrons are passed from water to P680
        
        then their energy is boosted by light
        
        then move through the ETC
        
        this last step is what produces ATP
      - works with photosystem I
    - - happens after Photosystem II after electrons pass through the ETC
        
        electrons are then boosted again by light
        
        pass through a second ETC to NADP+
        
        reducing it to NADPH
      - transfers electrons from H2O to NADPH
      - works with Photosystem II
      - P700
        
        The pair of chlorophylls name because they absorb red light at 700nm
    - - shows which wavelengths are most effective at powering a photochemical process
    - - shows which wavelengths are most strongly absorbed by a pigment
    - - release of light by a pigment
    - - doesn't use high-energy quanta
    - - visible light
      - gamma rays
      - X-rays
      - radio waves
      - ultraviolet light
      - microwaves
        
        so little energy per quantum
        
        makes pigment of molecule warmer
      - infrared light
  - - - long term storage: starch & lipids
      - intermediate storage: glucose & sucrose
      - short term storage: ATP & NADPH
      - 2 most important: synthetic pathways of polysaccharides and fats
      - anabolic reactions
      - constructive metabolism (rearranging & altering molecules)
  - - - electrons & energy added in next 2 steps
    - - RuBP (acceptor molecule)
        
        not ideal
      - conversion of CO2 to carbohydrate
- - - - photophosphorylation
        
        only occurs in chloroplasts in light
        
        involved light energy in photosynthesis
      - substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        occurs in all parts of the plant at all times
        
        phosphate is forced onto ADP
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        occurs in all parts of the plant at all times
        
        ADP phosphorylated to ATP
  - - - can't be removed w/out destroying membrane
      - important in chloroplasts thylakoid membrane
      - contain heme, which holds an iron atom
      - small proteins
    - - loosely associated w/ chloroplast membrane
      - carries electrons on a metal atom
        
        copper
      - small protein
    - - hydrophobic
      - pick up 2 electrons
        
        then bind 2 protons
      - transport electrons over short distances w/in membrane
  - - - the tendency to accept or donate electrons varies
    - - they place electrons onto other molecules
      - NADPH
      - NADH
    - - take electrons away from other molecules
      - NADP+
      - NAD+
    - - important in plants
      - ability to force electrons onto compounds
    - - most compounds are in the reduced state
      - reduced compounds contain H
      - reduction reaction
        
        reduces the + charge on an atom
      - electrons are added to an atom
    - - represents # of electrons lost
    - - oxidation reaction increases + charge
      - compounds in oxidized forms:
        
        oxidized compounds often contain > O2
        
        nitrogen as nitrate (NO3-)
        
        sulfur as sulfate (SO2-)
        
        carbon as carbon dioxide (CO2)
      - atom doesn't carry as many electrons as it could
- - - - #
  - - - cells closest to the metaxylem
    - - mature exterior cells
  - - - region known as shoot apical meristems
- - - - arranged in one ring surrounding the pith
        
        pith
        
        region of parenchyma similar to the cortex
      - located just interior to the cortex
      - formed from xylem and phloem
    - - stomatal pore
        
        guard cells collect water
        
        hole permitting CO2 to enter plant :check:
      - cutin
        
        fatty substance making wall impermeable to water :no_entry:
      - protects the plant form overheating from the sun :
      - barrier against bacteria and fungi, as well as insects
      - all interchange of material from environment happens here
      - single layer of living parenchyma cells
      - outermost surface
    - - 2 types of conducting cells
        
        sieve tube members
        
        sieve cells
    - - made of photosynthetic parenchyma and collenchyma
    - - 2 types of conducting cells
        
        tracheids
        
        vessel elemetns
    - - phloem
        
        distributes sugars and minerals
      - xylem
        
        conducts water and minerals
        
        enter at roots and are conducted upwards
- - - - leaves located in 2 rows only
    - - leaves not aligned w/ their nearby neighbors
    - - leaves located in 4 rows
    - - leaves 2 per node
    - - 3 or more leaves per node
    - - leaves one per node
  - - - a small, corky, waxy cover
    - - grow into a flower :
    - - grows into a branch
  - - - short shoots that have thick fleshy leaves
  - - - vertical thick stems that have thin papery leaves
- - - - Transfer cells
        
        increase surface area
        
        mediate short distance transport of materials
        
        plasma membrane capable of holding numerous molecule pumps
      - Glandular
        
        transport large amounts of sugar and minerals
        
        elevated amounts of dicytosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
        
        few cholorplasts
        
        secrete:
        
        nectar
        
        oils
        
        fragrances
        
        resins
        
        mucilage
      - Chlorenchyma
        
        pigmented cells as well
        
        flower petals and fruit
        
        numerous chloroplast
        
        thin walls to allow light and CO2 in :star:
        
        involved in photosynthesis #
  - - - mechanical sclerenchyma
        
        fibers
        
        involved in storage
        
        many types are dead, other types remain alive
        
        long
        
        sclereids
        
        often dead at maturity :
        
        more or less isodiametric
      - conducting sclarenchyma
        
        vessel elements
        
        only found in few ferns, horsetails, and gymnosperms
        
        almost exclusively in flowering plants
        
        dead at maturity
        
        most contain one or two perforations
        
        short and wide w/ perpendicular end walls
        
        tracheids
        
        found in all vascular plants
        
        dead at maturity
        
        contain no perforations
        
        long and narrow w/ tapered ends
    - - prevent the protoplast from expanding
    - - in mature organs after they have stopped growing
    - - they can be deformed but return back to normal
      - both are elastic
      - thick secondary wall
      - primary walls
  - - - exhibits plasticity
      - thick in other areas
        
        requires glucose for production
      - thin in some areas
- - - - cells just interior to the protoderm that grow outward
- - - - the midrib motor cells fill with water, swell, and force trap open
    - - secrets a watery digestive fluid
    - - obtains the nitrogen they need for their amino acids and nucleotides
  - - - when it touches something, the side facing the object stops growing
  - - - have no blade and are needle shaped
    - - the spines are modified leaves of axillary buds
      - spines are their axillary buds
  - - - remaining on the stem for many years
    - - needles occur in all pines, firs, and spruces
      - only few forms
      - always simple, never compound
      - contain unpalatable chemicals
      - epidermis and hypodermis have thick walls
      - thick cuticle
  - - - more resistant to animals, fungi, freezing temps, and UV light
  - - - photosynthesis occurs more deeply
    - - consequence of reducing the capacity for CO2 uptake
    - - Aizoaceae
      - Portulacaceae
      - Crassulacae
- - - - 2 small flaps of tissue at the base
        
        serve various functions
    - - 1, 3, 5, or more vascular bundles= leaf traces
        
        they branch from stem vascular bundles
        
        then diverge toward the petiole
    - - water lilies
      - rhubarb
      - celery
      - palms
  - - - wax on the outer wall
    - - water loss through the epidermis
  - - - mass of fibers above or below large veins, or both
    - - bundle sheath # #
        
        makes it difficult for insects to chew into vascular tissue
        
        many fibers arranged as a sheath
    - - mostly involved in conduction
      - aka midvein
        
        lateral veins emerge this branch into narrow minor veins
        
        also load sugar into phloem
        
        minor veins release water from xylem
  - - - open, loose
        
        permits CO2 to diffuse rapidly
      - lower portion of leaf
    - - usually one layer thick
        
        regions w intense sun, it can be 3 to 4 layers
      - large surface area
        
        allows for max dissolution
      - main photosynthetic tissue of most plants
      - layer of cells along upper surface
- - - - occur in a netted pattern called reticulate ventation
  - - - attached by a petiolule
        
        then to an extension of the petiole, the rachis
      - many small blades
  - - - makes it difficult for bugs to land
      - brings fresh air to surface
- - - - second atmosphere
        
        early second atmosphere was a reducing atmosphere
        
        and powerful r3educing agents
        
        lack of molecular oxygen
        
        and from heavy bombardment by meteorites
        
        produced by release of gases from the rock matrix
    - - 1.1 billion years may have passed between when earth solidified and life arose
      - no limits
    - - heat was another source
      - intense UV & gamma radiation from sun #
        
        these have energetic quanta
  - - - to living bacteria
  - - - derived from early second atmosphere
        
        by the addition of oxygen from photosynthesis
  - - - acted as the first primitive catalyst
  - - - have some organization and metabolism
- - - - hybrid sterility
        
        earliest postzygotic barriers
      - biological reproductive barriers
        
        prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        biological reproductive barriers that prevent pollination and fertilization
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        when 2 groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together
        
        any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
      - abiological reproductive barriers
        
        allopatric
        
        if speciation occurs
        
        any physical, nonliving feature that prevents 2 populations from exchanging genes
  - - - occurs in many ways:
        
        vegetative propagation
        
        small mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively
        
        can contribute to gene flow
        
        seed dispersal
        
        seeds/fruits that are spiny & gummy can stick to the fur of animals
        
        can be carried by wind, floods, and stream flow
        
        many species have long-distance dispersal mechanisms
        
        seeds can fall close to the parent
        
        pollen transfer
        
        animal-mediated pollenation
        
        allele movement can be rapid
      - movement of alleles physically through space
  - - - some populations of a species evolve into a new, second species
        
        the original species evolved unto a new third species
        
        while other populations either continue relatively unchanged
    - - one species gradually becomes so changed it must be considered a new species
  - - - then the 2 may evolve so that they resemble each other
        
        so that natural selection does not kill off one
- - - - not always caused by a single factor
  - - - does not include:
        
        voluntary decision making
        
        planning
        
        intnetion
        
        purpose
    - - differential survival among organisms that have different phenotypes
      - survival of the fittest
      - most significant factor causing gene pool changes
    - - rice, wheat, and corn
      - crop plants and domestic animals
      - used to produce ornamental plants that flower more abundantly
        
        or for a longer time
      - process by which humans purposefully change the allele frequency of a gene pool
    - - can be small events, as well as large
      - phenomena
      - events to which organisms can't adapt
    - - all genomes are subject to mutagenic factors
      - occur continually
- - - - uniform distribution
        
        all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbors
      - clumped distribution
        
        spaces between plants is either small or large '
      - random distribution
        
        no identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
    - - one factor that determines the health of the plant
  - - - douglas firs and bristle cone pines
      - species face intense competition from other plant species
    - - disturbance usually produces r conditions
      - typically are annuals or small shrubby perennials
  - - - length of time from birth of one individual until the birth of its offspring
    - - number of offspring produced by an individual that actually live ling enough to reproduce
- - - - affect biotic factors directly
      - produce significant, radical changes in an ecosystem quickly
      - phenomena
        
        floods
        
        fires
        
        snow avalanches
        
        landslides
    - - high altitude is similar to that of high latitude
      - latitude contributes many factors to the abiotic environment
    - - after many years, thick soil created to 3 layers
        
        A horizon
        
        consists of litter and debris
        
        aka zone of leaching
        
        uppermost layer
        
        C horizon
        
        composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        lowest layer
        
        B horizon
        
        contains both humus and clay
        
        rich in nutrients
        
        where materials from the A horizon accumulate
        
        aka zone of deposition
      - pioneers
        
        must tolerate severe conditions
        
        first plants that invade a new soil
      - soils are formed by breakdown of rock
    - - tolerance range
        
        between the low and high extremes
      - temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, winds
      - important to all organisms
  - - - pathogenic
        
        fungi that can cause mild disease or kill plant
      - herbivores
        
        grazing and browsing
        
        animals that eat plants
      - predation
        
        one species benefits and other is harmed
      - commensal relationships
        
        one species benefits and other is unaffected
      - animals, fungi, and prokaryotes
    - - ecotypes
        
        species specialized in response to particular ecosystem factors
      - niche #
        
        particular set of conditions
      - competitive exclusion
        
        species that is less adapted is excluded by superior competitors
      - competition
        
        interaction is disadvantageous for both organisms
      - mutualism
        
        interaction that's beneficial for both organisms
    - - modifies the habitat and is a part of it
- - - - or if the soil is rich or poor
        
        and the species tolerance ranges are broad or narrow
  - - - carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere
      - happens when one organisms eats another from a different level #
      - movement of carbon compounds move through the levels
    - - happens when one organisms eats another from a different level
      - the flow of energy through the levels
    - - break down the remains of organisms
        
        even other decomposers
      - fungi and bacteria
    - - prey on primary consumers
      - carnivores
    - - prayed on by carnivores
      - sometimes called secondary producers
      - herbivores
    - - energy and nutrient supply for the herbivores
      - first step of any food web
      - autotrophs
  - - - means by which the plant survives stressful seasons
      - a system of trees, shrubs, and herbs
- - - - overtopping
        
        unequal branching where 1 stem was more vigorous
    - - Trimerophyton
      - Pertica
        
        pseudomonopodial branching
        
        single main trunk rather than series
      - Psilophyton
  - - - clusters of sporangia where meiosis occurs
      - underside of the leaf
    - - diverges from siphonostele
        
        then leaves a small segment of the vascular cylinder
        
        this region is the leaf gap
      - located at each node
    - - or horizontal rhizome
      - either vertical shoot
    - - leptosporangiate ferns
        
        the familiar ferns
  - - - all megaphyllous plants form a monophyletic clade
    - - parenchyma develops between telomes and lower branches
    - - all subdivisions of lateral branch aligned in 1 plane
    - - ultimate twig, last dichotomy
    - - megaphyll evolution
    - - present in all seed plants, ferns, and equisetophytes
      - leaves that evolved from branch systems
  - - - true roots
      - true leaves
      - lateral branches
      - main trunk
    - - umbrella-shaped
      - sporangia always occur in groups of 5 to 10
    - - scourning rushes
      - horsetails
  - - - also the lignophytes
        
        woody plants
- - - - not the same as the leaves we're familiar w
      - enations in the division Lycophyta
  - - - on upper surface of Selaginella leaves *
      - small flap of tissue
  - - - protecting clusters of sporangia
- - - - ranged from small to long, thin scales
      - outgrowths
  - - - metaxylem located in the center
    - - protoxylem is located in center
    - - center is a solid mass of xylem w no piths
    - - no separate microspores or megaspores
      - equal dichotomous branching
        
        both branches being equal size and vigor
      - earliest fossils that were vascular plants
- - - - these are used to produce a new shoot in the spring
  - - - can prevent host tree from growing bigger
    - - for months/years, the roots have no contact with soil
  - - - upper side grows more rapidly than other parts
    - - stabilizer
    - - they transport nutrients and water to stem
  - - - parasitic
      - very little root like structure remains
      - roots of highly parasitic plants that have become highly modified
  - - - acts as a waterproof barrier permitting water to leave the sides of the root
  - - - infection thread extends all the way into the cortex, and cells undergo mitosis
    - - a tubelike invagination of the plant cell wall
  - - - both organisms benefit
- - - - as cells are pushed, their structure and metabolism change
      - ER gets displaced to the forward end of cell
      - then they develop dense starch grains
  - - - water pressure from the absorption of water and minerals by the root hairs
    - - now thought to show development
      - once thought to be a passageway for the absorbtion of minerals
  - - - quiescent center
        
        now believed these cells serve as a reserve of healthy cells
        
        these cells are more resistant to types of harmful agents
  - - - lateral roots are initiated by this
      - irregular region
      - perenchyma cells
      - between the vascular tissue and endodermis
    - - involved in controlling the types of minerals that enter the xylem
    - - waterproof
      - cells have tangled walls
      - innermost layer of cortical cells
    - - increasing absorption of water and minerals
- - - - trichomes
    - - cells undergo division and expansion
    - - apical meristem is protected by a thick layer of cells #
        
        the root cap #
        
        root cap cells secrete polysaccharides
        
        mucigel
        
        lubricates passage of the root through the soil
      - only extreme tip pushes through soil
  - - - fibrous root system
        
        mass of many similar sized roots
        
        aka adventitious roots
    - - may produce more lateral roots
      - develops from the radicle
      - much larger than all the rest