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Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis (Nature of pigments (action spectrum…

- - - - Excellent for absorbing CO2
        
        inefficient H2O conservation
- - - - energy used for electron transport chain
  - - - Q is molecule of quinone
        
        receives e- from phaeophytin
- - - - active site containing 2Fe
      - small protein
      - located in thylakoid
- - - - CF1 in portion that phosphorylates
        
        ADP->ATP
      - Stroma is thylakoids in one region
  - - - CF0-CF1 complex
- - - - reactions
- - - - metal atom
  - - - dissolve easily
      - Hydrophobic
- - - - C is +4 oxidative state
      - electrons closer to O
- - - - CO2 stored on acids
        
        CO2 cant escape at night
        
        Stomata closed
    - - Permits Photosynthesis
  - - - CO2 is absorbed and kept
        
        O is kept away
      - water loss high
      - CO2 diffusion low
      - Water lost for every CO2 absorbed
    - - Plant keeps stomata closed
  - - - Longer days
        
        some chlorplasts fill up of starch
        
        photosynthesis halts
        
        More photosynthesis
      - Summer light
        
        brighter
        
        longer
      - Hours per day sunlight is avaliable
        
        Closer to the poles the shorter the day
        
        Equator has 12 hour days
    - - Under water
        
        Increases CO2 concentraions
        
        absorb blue and green light
        
        appear different colors than land plants
      - poles light > than equator light
      - light intensity or brightness
    - - red light close to ground level
        
        allows efficient photosynthesis
      - blue light defected up
      - sunlight is pure white
      - Colors or Wavelengths
- - - - Photophosphorylation
        
        Respire high energy compounds
        
        Compounds force P on ADP
        
        "Substrate level phosphorylation"
        
        ADP -> ATP
        
        Oxidation Phosphorylation
    - - too energized to control
- - - - short wide stem and only two leaves
      - exist only in deserts of south africa
    - - touch shrubs and bushes
        
        leaves are reduced and scale like
        
        very common in desert regions of mexico and US
      - 40 species
    - - broad leaves similar to dicots
      - mostly vines or small shrubs
      - 30 species
- - - - male trees are preferred,
        
        female tree seeds produce a bad smell
      - dioecious and gymnospermous
        
        pollen is produced in an organ
        
        ovules come in pairs
        
        unprotected at maturity
        
        occur at the ends of short stalks
        
        but cones not produced
    - - have dichotomously branched veins like seed ferns
    - - shoots bear most of the leaves
      - both short and long shoots
- - - - between the ovules were thick, fleshy scales
  - - - leaf trace organization
      - subtle deatials of stomatal complexes
- - - - a large, multiflagated sperm cells
      - a branched pollen tube
  - - - rays are massive
- - - - pollen arrives before the egg is mature
        
        a year may pass between pollination and fertizilation
      - seed cones are more complex #
        
        compound cones with a shoot and axillary buds
        
        auxillary bud is microscopic
        
        its megasporophylls are fused laterally
        
        in each megasporangium
        
        mother cell undergoes meiosis
- - - - wood was manooxylic
        
        softer and less dense
      - similar to gymnosperms and angiosperms
      - produced xylem and phloem
  - - - pteridosperms thought to have evolved from aneurophytales
        
        later species had a ring of vascular bundles
      - all extinct
      - seed ferns
    - - cycadeoids, all entinct
    - - cycads, extant #
- - - - the wood was no different from of many living confiers
      - produced large amounts of secondary xylem and phloem
  - - - simultaneously, microspores were evolving into pollen grains # #
      - megasporangium surrounded by tissue
        
        called an integument
        
        a micropyle in the integument
        
        after megaspore developed into a megagametophyte and produced eggs
        
        hole that permitted the sperm cells to swim to egg
        
        this tissue projected upward
      - produced one megaspore cell
        
        produced three small, aborted cells
        
        produced on large viable megaspore
    - - 390 mya
    - - except when gametophyte is microscopic
  - - - seeds not produced
      - microspores 30 um in diameter
      - megaspores measured up to 300 um in diameter
      - heterosporous
  - - - these were not leaves
    - - Ameirpphyton, Protopteridium, proteokalon, tetraxylopteris, triloboxylon, and eospermatopteris
- - - - recessive trait
        
        represented with lowercase letter
        
        the trait that while carried doesnt show
      - dominant trait
        
        represented with capital letter #
        
        the trait that shows
  - - - polymorphic genes us X1 X2 X3 X4
      - these are polymorphic #
  - - - if a large # of heterozygotes are selfed
    - - produces a selfing
  - - - Red + White flower causes pink
        
        this is incomplete dominance
      - each parent said to be homozygous
      - Offspring are F1
        
        if offspring interbreeds they are F2
      - parents
- - - - A piece of DNA put in backwards
    - - addition of base pair(s)
    - - when base pair(s) are lost
  - - - important if it affects vegetative offshoot
    - - mutations in leaves, roots wont be passed to offspring
  - - - Chemicals, ultra violate rays, xrays, radiations
      - Transposable elements
        
        powerful tool for genetic engineering and analysis
        
        two basic forms
        
        Transposon
        
        genes that code for proteins
        
        proteins not associated with transposition
        
        much longer insertion
        
        Insertion sequences
        
        contain genes that code for enzymes
        
        a few base pairs long
        
        DNA that change positions from one to the other
      - something that causes mutations
- - - - the farther apart the more likely
      - two genes that are far apart cross
        
        most chromosomes so long that it occurs a lot
  - - - all genes align during metaphase I
        
        during metaphase II two chromatids sepereate
        
        four haploid cells produced
        
        independent alleles end up together
      - genes move independently
      - genes on two different alleles
- - - - new octamers added to both
      - go to one of the double helixes
  - - - Original primer rnas are depolymerized
      - new pieces of DNA grow toward them
      - the existing framents
  - - - each strand has one old molecule
      - each strand has 1 new molecule
    - - nucleotides pair with its bases
- - - - can be recognized as duplicate alleles
      - ake extra copies of genes
      - deleterious mutations not eleiminated
    - - diploid pollen and eggs are produced
      - usually healthy
    - - plants tolerate it
    - - dipliod gametohpytes
  - - - structure of histones
      - Cellulose synthesis
      - DNA replication
      - respiration
  - - - cells have many plastids
        
        each cells has a mixture of plastid types
      - responsible for variegation
        
        presence of spots that are not green
    - - presence of DNA mutants dont result in phenotypes
      - each cell has many mitochondria
- - - - become wider
        
        VB attaches itself to preexisting cambium
      - become longer
        
        new cells are added
    - - established growth
        
        increase in width and addition
        
        form of primary growth
      - trunk hard because VB enclosed in fiber
      - no branches
      - trunk doesnt taper at tip
  - - - remains thin in other two
      - stem grows outward in two directions
      - advantage may be flexibility
    - - one to several layers of wood
      - protection from pests
      - secondary phloem between xylem
    - - large sweet potaot
        
        may contain 100s of ages of cambia
      - new vessels surrounded by new cambium
      - xylem and phloem are parenchyma
      - storage parenchyma increased
- - - - companion cells
      - sieve tube members
        
        conduct -1 year
      - conduction up and down stem/root
- - - - located at bases of cracks in bark
      - contain more layers of cells
      - permit oxygen to enter though the cork
      - region of aerenchymatous cork
  - - - first bark differs from old stems
    - - stem changes from green to tan
  - - - cork cambium short lived
      - temporary protection
      - cork cambium, cork cells, and phelloderm
    - - outer cell becomes a cork cell
      - inner cells remains cork cambium
      - cells cubidial
      - results from secondary phloem #
- - - - growth rings wide on underside of branch
      - rich in lignin and less cellulose
      - compression wood
      - underside of branch
    - - prevents drooping
      - tension wood
      - mainly upper side of branch
  - - - plug of protoplasm bubbles
    - - outer region
      - moister
      - lighter
    - - 10 years to become hard wood
      - water column breaks
        
        no way to pull water
      - more fragrant
      - center of log, darker
  - - - vessels restricted to early wood
    - - growth ring with vessels
    - - form 1 year ring, growth ring
      - contains more fibers
      - stronger
      - low proportion of vessels
    - - transperation is less
      - cuticle has thickened
      - high proportion of wide vessels
  - - - radial system
        
        ray parenchyma
        
        stores sugars
        
        contains only parenchyma
        
        simple
        
        from ray initials
      - axial system
        
        conifers
        
        only axial wood
        
        contains tracheary elements
        
        from fusiform initials
      - contains all cells in primary xylem
        
        no new cells
      - "wood"
- - - - irregular patterns
      - regular horizontal rows
    - - 1,2, or more cells wide
      - short vertical rows
  - - - produce short cells
        
        albuminous cells
        
        storage parenchyma
  - - - division with a wall parallel
    - - increases cambium cells
      - longitudinal division
    - - two elongate cells
        
        1 secondary cell
        
        1 fusiform initial
  - - - make the fascicular cambium
      - continue dividing
- - - - fruit and seeds must be light
    - - indehiscent
        
        do not break open to release seeds
      - dehiscent
        
        break open to release seeds
    - - is fruit dry or fleshy
        
        fleshy
        
        eaten during natural seed distributing processed
        
        dry
        
        fruit that is eaten by seed-distributing animals
  - - - if nonovarain fruit is present
  - - - result in distribution of seed
      - result in protection of seeds
        
        must be able to break out to make germination possible
- - - - entire fruit wall
    - - "pit of a cherry"
      - may be touch like stones
    - - "middle layer"
      - flesh
    - - "skin or peel"
      - outer layer
    - - ovary develops into fruit
  - - - monocots
        
        endosperm remains and is present in mature seed
        
        in mature seeds when endosperm is abundant
        
        albuminous seed
        
        in cereals we eat mostly endosperm
        
        one cotyledon generally does not become thick and filled
        
        cotyledons contain mostly starch and protein
      - short axis is established
        
        epicotyl
        
        may bear few small leaves
        
        embryonic stem
        
        hypocotyl
        
        root/shoot junction
        
        radicle
        
        contaijs several primorodia for lateral roots
        
        embryonic root
      - embryo is an elongate cylinder
    - - grow both nuclear and cellular divisions
      - zygote begins to grow
        
        becomes small cluster of cells
        
        becomes embryo proper
        
        becomes embryo proper
  - - - second sperm nucleus released from the pollen tube #
        
        undergoes karyogamy with both polar nuclei
    - - karyogamy
        
        fusion of the nuclei
      - plasmogamy
        
        fusion of protoplasts of the gametes
  - - - embryo sac
        
        term for multinucleate megagametophyte
      - develops from megaspore
    - - pollen grain lands on stigma
        
        produces a pollen tube
      - formation of sperm cells occurs while pollen in anther
  - - - four types
        
        usually same number of each type
        
        most flowers have all four types
        
        carpels
        
        three main parts
        
        ovary
        
        contain ovules
        
        develops into seed when egg is fertilized
        
        mass of parenchyma called nucellus
        
        have a funiculus
        
        1 more item...
        
        small structures
        
        contain placentae
        
        where megaspores are produced
        
        style
        
        elevates stigma
        
        stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
        
        constitute the gynoecium
        
        stamens
        
        two parts
        
        anther #
        
        where pollen is produced
        
        filament (stalk)
        
        produce pollen
        
        collectively the androecium
        
        petals
        
        similar to leaves
        
        attract the correct pollinators
        
        together make up the corolla
        
        sepals
        
        don't develop in wind pollinators
        
        all together are called the calyx
        
        modified leaves that protect bud during development
        
        lower most and outermost of all four
    - - at the very end is the receptacle
        
        where other flower parts are attached
      - pedicel
  - - - undergrow mitosis
        
        grow into a new haploid plant a gametophyte
        
        mircogametophyte
        
        produce microspores
        
        male
        
        megagametophyte
        
        produce megaspores
        
        female
        
        haploid gametophyte does not resemble a diploid sporophyte
        
        gameto- = gamete
        
        plant = phyte
    - - produce the diploid zygote
      - gametes fuse with other gametes
    - - sporophytes always dipliod
        
        produce haploid plants
        
        also have organs
      - part of the sporophyte generation
- - - - det
    - - large flowers have more ovules
        
        can produce more nectar
      - inflorescences can increase reproductive success
        
        determinate inflorescences
        
        Inflorescence apex is converted to flower
        
        indeterminate inflorescence
        
        lowest/outermost flowers open first
    - - number of healthy, viable seedlings that are established
- - - - individual parts become self sufficient
        
        these parts establish adventitious roots
        
        parts of the plant act as separate individuals
        
        if portions of the plant die cells will spereater
- - - - inferior ovary
        
        ovary is below other organs
        
        superior ovary
        
        ovary is above the other flower parts
        
        receptacle tissue grows upward
      - must be very close to the pollinators
      - must be well protected from pollinators
    - - grow in dense populations (grasses)
      - attracting pollinators is unnecessary
        
        often do not have sepals
    - - increase probability of pollen reaching stigma
        
        often pollen was put on the wrong species
        
        other species developed
      - had dramatic impact on evolution of plants
        
        these qualities were selected for evolution
        
        insects pollinated flowers with certain qualities
    - - ensures cross-pollination
        
        plant produces one spore that cannot pollinate itself
      - extreme adaption
    - - fertilization
        
        carpels develop into large fruits #
      - monoecious species
        
        cattails and corn
      - staminate flowers on same plant as carpellate flowers
    - - stamens and carpels
      - produce critically important spores
        
        when both organs are present
        
        sexual reproduction is capapbility
        
        perfect flower
        
        when one organ is not present
        
        "imperfect flower"
        
        drastically affect sexual reproduction
  - - - in self pollination
        
        pollen tube genes match stigma and style
      - stigma and style test proteins
    - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels
        
        prevent pollen growth
      - inhibit self-pollination
  - - - probably closely related
        
        seeds fall and germinate near the plant
        
        pollen comes from nearby plants
    - - this prevents self-fertilization
  - - - pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower
    - - all have some kind of genetic diversity
- - - - 60,000 species
        
        many are important medically
      - three basic features
        
        stamens alternate with petals
        
        always have a few stamens
        
        petals are fused together in a tube
      - originated 60 million years ago
      - sunflower, periwinkle, petunia, morning glory
    - - named for the roses, however this is not the whole group
        
        marijuana
        
        also contains grapes (vitales)
      - two large groups and several small ones
      - so diverse it is difficult to see how they are related
      - Many families
    - - probably arose from ancestors similiar to Ranunculaceae
        
        suspected to be shrubby or
      - Qualities
        
        either no wood or anomalous wood
        
        most members herbaceous
        
        endosperms develops only a little
        
        nucleus cells proliferate
        
        perisperm usually absorbed by the time the seed is mature #
        
        forms nutritive tissue called perisperm
        
        ancestral group probably lacked petals
        
        Produce water soluble pigments called betalains
      - Carnations and Chickweed (Caryphyllales)
      - spinach beets and russian thistle (Amaranthaceae)
      - bougainvillea and four o'clocks (Nyctaginaceae)
      - Portulaca (portulaceae)
      - iceplant (aizoaceae)
      - cacti (crustaceae)
    - - know for numerous ornamental species
        
        Papaver
        
        papaver somniferum
        
        source of milky latex
        
        how we get the pain killer morphine
        
        haversted for opium
        
        opium poppy
        
        Eschscholzia
        
        Argemone
      - poppy family
    - - each flower usually has stamens and carpels
      - clades that diverged in early eudicot evolution
      - flowers have little fusion of parts #
- - - - Yams
        
        starchy tubers
  - - - open areas secrete nectar
      - carpels fuse side by side starting at the base
  - - - smaller clade, 11 families and 1300 species
  - - - air chambers make the plant bouyant
        
        plants do not waste carbon energy by producing fibers
        
        flowers are large and showy
        
        sclerenchyma and almost no xylem
        
        tend to be thin and delicate
      - partly or entirely submerged
      - most often found in swamps and marshes
- - - - Austrobaileyales
      - nymphaeaceae
        
        small, soft bodied herbs
        
        water lillies
      - amborellaceae
        
        small trees in new Caledonia
        
        one species, Amborella trichopoda
        
        wood contains only tracheids
- - - - generally
        
        can be woody, succulent, or herbaceous
        
        flowers
        
        rarely three
        
        sets of five (SOMETIMES FOUR)
        
        vascular bundles one ring in the stem
        
        two cotyledons and reticulate venation in the leaf
      - classify almost all angiosperms
    - - flowers
        
        parts arranged in multiples of three
        
        three carpels
        
        three stamens
        
        three petals
        
        three sepals
      - generally
        
        never have ordinary secondary growth and wood
        
        vascular bundles distributed in the stem #
        
        leaves have parallel veins
        
        have one cotyledon on each embyo
  - - - hard for an individual taxonomist to study all
- - - - Flowers and fruits
        
        lower cretaceous people
      - oldest wood from an angiosperm
        
        125 million years ago
        
        from apian epoch
      - transition from gymnosperm to angiosperm #
        
        130 million years ago
        
        Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods
        
        130 million years ago
        
        earliest leaf fossils from lower Cretaceous period
      - recent DNA studies indicate monophyly of angiosperms
      - complex features probably did not evolve more than once
    - - a magnolia thought to be relictual
        
        such a flower is generalized
        
        all parts are arranged spirally
        
        it has all parts
        
        carpals are arranged in a superior position
        
        eudicot flowers have four or five of each #
        
        monocot flowers have three stamens and three carpels #
      - developed by C.E. Bessey
- - - - organism restricts anothers access to resource without using it
    - - organisms consume a shared resource
  - - - less profitable prey < more probable prey
      - some prey will always be consumed
      - when prey is scarce predators will go after other prey
      - predators will prefer prey that yields most energy
    - - probability that an attacked prey is always eaten
      - decision by the predator to attack an individual
      - probability predator encounters prey
        
        optimal forage theory
  - - - healthy pop, harvest is good
        
        hunting or fishing only allowed for length of time
      - pop health determined by amount of fish, deer, etc
    - - point where growth rate changes + to -
    - - if predator could keep population at inflection point
        
        maximum substantial point
        
        species would be stable
      - if predator eliminates the prey both go down
      - predator cannot over consume the prey
      - prey dependent #
        
        predators functional response is dependent on prey density
- - - - "foundation of the community"
      - has an impact out of proportion of its size
      - affect the structure of community
    - - difficult to construct
        
        major studies of food web is incomplete
      - trace how energy flows through a system
- - - - habitats near equator become too warm for species
      - global warming
    - - plants: dispersal of seeds and spores
        
        dispersed by birds
        
        may be blown by wind
      - flying, walking, swimming
    - - sink habitat
    - - source habitat
  - - - Populations within patches have a probability of going extinct
      - empty patches will become colonized by migration from other patches
      - some patches occupied by species where others are not
      - region of the environment is composed of many discrete patches
- - - - creates a more favorable environment for seeds #
      - alter a small area of a habitat immediately below themselves
- - - - angiosperms had originated
      - ferns and conifers were diverse
      - began to cool 50 mya
    - - latitudinal diversity
        
        insight into complexity and processes of community
      - more diverse
    - - high altitudes
        
        little to no ice free land
      - receive little sunlight and warmth
        
        temperatures are bitterly cold
      - less species
  - - - Determining size of areas is problematic
        
        preliminary studies done to see if long term studies not a waste
      - relationship between area and species
        
        no community will have equal numbers
        
        species
        
        individuals
        
        S=cA^z
        
        c and z are constants in communities
        
        A = Area
        
        S = Number of species
        
        species area relationship
      - more variations in
        
        topography
        
        geology
        
        soil
      - Larger areas have more diverse habitats
- - - - soil water is bound to soil particles #
    - - soil particles
      - membranes
      - cell walls
  - - - one megapascal is 10 ATM
    - - H2O is cohesive
  - - - elevated #
      - put under pressure
      - heating
  - - - water lass is a bigger problem
        
        incipient plasmosis
        
        cell loses water is not at equalibrium
        
        protoplast pulls away from wall
        
        losing too much causes wilting
      - cells pump solutes through the plasma membrane
      - immature cells grow don't burst
      - walls too strong
    - - cell must lose half its H2O to double O potential
      - equilibrium occurs above 0.3MPa
      - water potentials not equal
    - - osmotic+pressure= -0.1MPa
      - cell wall presses back with pressure
- - - - open stomata is a trade off
        
        CO2 in H2O out
  - - - long-distance horizonally
      - 10m= at least 0.1MPa
      - negative water potential
      - water moves upwards
    - - transstomatal respiration
      - open stomal pores allow H2O loss #
  - - - would take less energy if lighter
      - takes energy to pull up
    - - plants cant pull H2O from salt
    - - cant be pulled from dry soil
      - plants absorb water from moist soil
    - - in plants everything interacts with H2O
        
        makes it hard for water to move
        
        except lipids
    - - when frozen bound strongly together
      - behaving as if weakly bound together
- - - - leaf can close in venus flytrap
  - - - when fully closed
      - when fully open
    - - internal pressure low
    - - water enters and leaves at same rate
- - - - new cell plate
        
        formed by
        
        coalescnce of vesicles from
        
        dictyosomes
        
        endoplasmic reticulum
  - - - Osmosis
        
        Differentially/ Selectively permeable membranes
        
        H2O passes through all membranes
        
        Hydrophilic molecules
        
        need special protein channels
        
        Hydrophobic molecule diffuse well
        
        lipid/protein cells
        
        all selectively permeable
        
        allow certain substances to diffuse
        
        Completely impermeable
        
        isolation barriers
        
        Do not allow anything to diffuse
        
        freely permeable membranes
        
        little biological significance
        
        allow all solutes to diffuse
    - - High to low
- - - - p protein plug
        
        callose contributes
        
        mass too large to pass through
      - seal broken sieve element
    - - loss of sugars
      - not active simultaneously
      - small trees can have 1000s
      - receive phloem sap
    - - in sources, loading occurs along VB
      - plasma membranes permeable to mono+disaccharides
        
        not to polysaccharides
      - polymer trap mechanism
- - - - made in dyctosomes
    - - pectic substances
  - - - centriole
        
        9 sets of 3
  - - - isolate H2O2 reactions
  - - - vesicle contents
  - - - ribosomes attach
    - - form a network through cytoplasm
  - - - develop into chloroplasts
  - - - shape
    - - selectively permeable
      - folded sheets
    - - low reactions
  - - - Ribosome synthesized
    - - separates nucleus from the rest
      - two membranes
    - - Necessary for life
- - - - formed many "compartments"
    - - helps movement of charged particals
    - - ability to take things in
    - - Can secrete anything
  - - - Double over to form bilayer
      - hydrophobic end
        
        Projects out of water if flat
      - Hydrophillic end
        
        Forms H bonds with H2O
    - - Sugar
        
        oligosaccharides
        
        glysolipids
        
        up to 8% if at all
      - Extrinsic proteins
        
        outside the membrane
      - Intrinsic proteins
        
        Partially immersed in bilayer
      - 60% protein
- - - - produce ribose
  - - - Oxygen is less available after rain
    - - as little as 1-2% O
- - - - Transported to microbodies
      - phosphoglycolate
      - 3-phosphoglycerate
  - - - glycerol phosphate and 2 fatty acids
      - Glycerol and 3 Fatty acids
        
        Fatty acids broken down
        
        Broken down by Beta-oxidation
        
        Acetyl CoA
        
        May enter CAC and be respired
        
        Used for synthesis of Carbs
  - - - releases CO2
        
        produce NADPH
    - - ends with erythrose and ribose
        
        Erythrose synthesizes many compounds
  - - - Some plants make a lot of heat
        
        Electron carriers do not interfere with CN N3- or CO
      - Heat lost maintains body temp
  - - - Electron transport train
        
        NADH diffuses to the membrane
        
        Passes e- to a protien with FMN
        
        O adds 2+ and becomes H2O
        
        FMN is reduces
        
        NADH oxidized to NAD+
        
        Contained in Mitochondrial Membrane
      - The citric acid cycle
        
        Produce CO2 and NADH
        
        Only one step makes ATP
        
        Pyruvate transport
        
        Hans Kreb
      - glycolysis
        
        NADH oxidized to NAD+
        
        Occurs in cytosol and plastids
        
        Produces ATP and NADH
    - - Oxygen is inexpensive
      - Oxygen requires no atp consumption
      - Oxygen accepts electron
  - - - in mitochondria 34 ADP to ATP
- - - - Can harm fetuses
      - addictive to many people
      - effect is dependent on body
    - - converted to acetone in body
    - - bodies convert to formaldehyde
    - - 0.02 interferes with coordination
      - 0.4 is usually fatal
      - 0.08 is drunk
  - - - fermented juices of agave
        
        agave stores carbs not starches
    - - american uses corn, rye and wheat
      - Irish and scotch use malted barley
  - - - ethonal +wine =fortified wine
      - prosecco produced in italy
      - Champagne produce in Champagne france
  - - - Malt sometimes replaced by potatoes ($)
      - Malt give beer its bitter flavor
    - - Starch to glucose
    - - Barley is most common
- - - - Two types of xylem organization
        
        both the center is a protostele
        
        siphonostele
        
        occurs in ferns and seed plants #
        
        pith is located in the center
        
        evolved later
        
        exarch protostele
        
        protoxylem is located outside
        
        metaxylem located in the center
        
        endarch protostele
        
        metaxylem differentiates
        
        protoxylem is located in the center
    - - Horneophyton
        
        had stomata
        
        sporophytes
        
        had naked axes that branched out
      - Lynophyton, sciadophyton
        
        flatted cup-shaped ends of stems
        
        gametophytes
      - belong to Cooksonia
        
        no stems
        
        upright cylanders
        
        equal dichotomous branching
        
        Extinct species
  - - - lower portions lacked parts
      - stems have cuticle cells
        
        stomata
      - grew as small bunches
      - all extinct
- - - - leaf trace diverges from siphonostele
        
        vascular cambium occurs in Botrychium
        
        only parenchyma
        
        makes small segment of the vascular cylinder
    - - are instead heterotrophic
      - gametophytes have no chlorophyll
      - either a vertical shoot or horizontal rhizome
  - - - 15 extant species
        
        living plants are all herbs
        
        have no secondary herbs
        
        horse tails and scouring rishes
      - Equisetum
        
        reproductive structures are specialized
        
        spores germinate
        
        develop into small green gametophytes
        
        homosporous
        
        sporangia located on sporangiophore
        
        sporangia in groups of 5-10
        
        leaves are small
        
        stems have jointed structure
  - - - have a 30-kilobase inversion
      - have megaphylls
      - roots have exarch xylem
  - - - megaphylls
        
        present in all seed plants, ferns, and equisetophytes # #
        
        leaves that evolved from branch stems
      - enations of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
      - leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
  - - - positioning of branches became regular and controlled
      - timerophyton, psilophyton, and pertica
        
        trimerophytons
        
        existed throw lower to upper devonian period
        
        evolved into ancestors of ferns and seed plants
        
        most important is trend of overtopping
        
        distinct advancement out of rhyniophytes
- - - - these do not indicate they are closely related
- - - - internal structures
        
        stem elongation stretches and tears cells
        
        forms canals
        
        vessels are rare
        
        protoxylem forms next to pith
        
        stems have pith
      - anatomy and morphology
        
        epidermis
        
        stems tough and rigid
        
        large amounts of silica
        
        stomatal spores and guard cells
        
        indicate many instances of convergent evolution with seed plants
        
        roots
        
        bark
        
        wood
        
        efficient, elaborate leaves
      - almost every leaf contains sporangia
      - heterosporous
      - grow in wet, muddy areas that sometimes become dry
      - genus of ~60 quillworts
    - - distinguished from lycopodiums by a ligule
      - apomorphic condition of being heterosporous
        
        megaspore mot retained on the sporophyte
        
        megagametophyte develops inside the megaspore
      - smaller and overlooked to be mosses
      - less common in temperate north america
    - - sporangia
        
        may be distributed along the shoots
        
        may be arranged in cones
      - all species
        
        true roots and short upright branches #
        
        prostrate rhizomes
        
        small herbs
      - common in forests to tropical regions to artic
      - "ground pine" or "club moss"
  - - - have microspores and megaspores
        
        necessary for evolution of seeds
        
        gave rise to microgametophytes and megagametophytes
        
        megagametophyte existed in megaspore
        
        megaspore retained in sporophyll
    - - located in sporangia # #
        
        protect them
    - - located in sporangia
        
        protect them
  - - - increased photosynthesis
      - enations could be called leaves
        
        called microphylls for clarity
        
        "micro" due to evolution from small enations
- - - - some cells differentiate into elaters
      - often one one cell thick
      - outer layer of sterile cells is much thinner
    - - sporophyte has foot, seta, and calyptra-covered sporangium
      - two groups distinct in structure
  - - - antheridiophore
        
        dozens of antheridia
        
        has a stalk several mm tall
        
        umbrella shaped outgrowth
      - body is sometimes referred to as thallus
      - flat and ribbon like
      - show less resemblence to mosses #
    - - gametophore leaves resembles a moss leaves
        
        thin leaves on a slender stem
      - gametophyte phase starts when spores germinate
- - - - plant drys out after a few minutes
      - thin incomplete cuticle
    - - withstand dry conditions for long times
      - trees and succulents
  - - - seta is a narrow stalk
    - - upper cell grows into a capsule
        
        into a simple apical sporangium
      - basal cell develops into foot
  - - - archegonia
        
        neck hollow at maturity
        
        produce eggs
        
        shaped like a vase with long neck
      - antherridia
        
        produce sperms
        
        sperm goes down the tube to the eggs
        
        mature sperm cells break open antheridium
        
        outermost layer or sterile cells
        
        short stalk
    - - protonema
        
        branched system of similar cells
      - sends out a long, slender chlorophyllous cell
      - spore germinates
    - - Rhizoids
        
        anchor the stem
        
        small, multicellular trichome-like
      - leptoids
        
        prominent interactions
        
        elongate
        
        resemble sieve cells
      - hydroids
        
        elongates cells
        
        innermost cortex cells
    - - all moss stems
        
        have leaves
        
        leaf have cuticles
        
        these leaves not homologous to vascular leaves
      - cool wet areas
        
        more open and loose
      - leafy stems, known as gametophores
        
        grow from an apical meristem
        
        form dense mounds
        
        grow close together
- - - - little water or for the larger, more complex
  - - - gametophytes are tiny and occur inside pollen grains and ovules
        
        larger, more prominent generation
      - sporophytes large plants with leaves and roots
        
        absorb minerals
        
        smaller, more temporary inconspicuous generation
  - - - slimy, bright green mosses of ponds
      - lycophytes
    - - pineapple
  - - - leafy stems look remarkably like flowering plants #
- - - - occurred 2.8 billion years ago
    - - without iron oxygen might have killed everything
  - - - aggregates would have absorbed some atp
      - favored anything that could advance metabolism
  - - - countless aggregates would have formed
        
        would have dissociated
      - heterotrophs
    - - fatty acids occupied outmost layers
  - - - these pools would contain monpmers
      - pools form at seaside
  - - - water boiled
        
        organic acids formed
        
        nitrogen bases
        
        lipids
        
        amino acids
        
        electrodes sparked
  - - - ocean contained many organic compounds
      - oxygen was not present to break down chemicals
      - no limits for life
    - - rain was persistent
        
        lightning strikes powered reactions
        
        evaporated when it touched hot earth
        
        rain would have lasted 1000s of years
      - complex chemistry in early second atmosohere
        
        exposed to intense UV and gamma radiation
        
        Heat was available to power reactions
        
        NH3 would have decomposed
        
        these radiations knock electrons from atoms
    - - mostly H at first
        
        H2S, NH3, CH4 and H20
        
        second atmosphere formed
      - earth condensed from gases and dust 4.6 million years ago
- - - - all offspring greatly resemble first
        
        if one seed is founder, gene pool only two alleles #
        
        gene pool small
        
        more subject to accidents
        
        can cause gene pool to change rapidly
      - occurs when there is no competition/environmental stress
      - special case of divergent evolution
        
        species changes in short period of time
    - - postzygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        subpopulations of plants emerge from interbreeding
        
        subpopulations develop new alleles
        
        evolutionary barriers have created subspecies
        
        genomes become too different to breed together
        
        two populations interbreed and create viable seed
        
        the seed grow into a sterile plant
        
        homolgous chromosomes no longer homologous
        
        1 more item...
        
        no synapsis
        
        hybrid sterility
        
        create new genomes
      - prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        act before zygote can form
      - plants over a large area
        
        different characteristics
        
        often matter to pollinators and seed distributors
        
        may not matter to plant
        
        humidity
        
        temperature
        
        elevation
    - - flowers open in the evening
        
        do not interbreed
      - flowers open in the morning
    - - pollinators are biased to certain traits
        
        If a plant doesnt get pollinated its alleles are eliminated
      - can prevent gene flow
  - - - could evolve so that they look alike
        
        same phenotypes does not mean same genotype
        
        have different ancestor plants
        
        may look alike but can not interbreed
      - natural selection could favor same phenotypes
  - - - original species divided into two populations
        
        if speciation results it is allopatric
        
        they cannot interbreed
      - physical, nonliving feature that prevents gene exchange
        
        Mountain ranges are common of this
        
        plants on top of a mountain often isolated
        
        seeds that are carried across are rare
        
        pollinators do not fly across ranges
    - - some populations evolve into third species
      - other populations stay the same
  - - - occurs by
        
        vegetative propagation
        
        some plants produce small, mobile pieces
        
        seed dispersal #
        
        many species have long distance dispersal
        
        sticky seeds can stick to bird wings
        
        carried by wind, floods, and stream mechanisms
        
        fruits/seeds of some plants fall close to parent
        
        pollen transfer
        
        distribution
        
        animal-mediated
        
        usually causes pollen to stay in a small area
        
        causes genes to stay close
        
        wind carries pollen far
        
        all alleles of a plant are present
        
        pollen grains carry one haploid genome
      - movement of alleles physically
- - - - plant could be killed by fungus, which it doesn't protect against
  - - - contain certain alleles due to survival of ancestors
        
        ancestors with weak traits died off
        
        along with alleles for weak traits
        
        ancestors with good traits survived
        
        these events not planned
      - plants cannot plan activities and have purpose
      - purpose, intention, planning, voluntary decision making
    - - two conditions must be met
        
        progeny must differ in allele types
        
        Natural selection only works if it kills individuals
        
        diversity
        
        plants with advantageous traits grow faster
        
        at least half of the new seeds will have good trait
        
        will produce more seeds
        
        pathogenic fungi attack
        
        surviving members breed and a resistant population is formed
        
        member with resistant alleles survive
        
        if they were identical
        
        no change in allele frequency
        
        equally susceptible to pathogenic fungi
        
        affected by adversity the same
        
        must produce more more offspring that can grow
        
        Herbivorous animals
        
        may rob nectar without pollinating
        
        eat plants
        
        most seeds do not travel far
        
        plants produce 100s of seeds
      - individuals most adapted to environment survive
      - "survival of the fittest"
      - most significant factor
    - - plant breeders
        
        gene pool for most crops today have been artificially selected over thousands of years
        
        search for desirable qualities for crops
        
        plants with desirable qualities' seeds used in future
      - When humans purposefully change allele frequency
    - - Can be small and large
      - droughts
        
        may not affect plants that don't
        
        affects plants that need water
      - examples
        
        floods hailstorms droughts
        
        volcanic eruption
      - meteor strikes earth
        
        Eliminates population alleles
        
        Eliminates large amount of population
      - Events where an organism cannot adapt
    - - new alleles increase
      - Existing alleles decrease in frequency
      - All genomes subject to mutagenic factors
- - - - prevents photosynthesis in host
    - - deposit seed on other trees
  - - - penetration occurs by
        
        cracking dermis
        
        penetrating dermis
      - secrete adhesive or wrap around
      - little root structure remains
        
        Inadequate for soil growth
      - roots of parasitic plants
  - - - cells undergo mitosis
      - contains N fixating bacteria
    - - where bacteria sits in root
  - - - Herbaceous plants
        
        hyphae penetrate to endodermis
      - woody forst plants
        
        fungal cells penetrate the root cortex
  - - - when dry, air could pull out water
      - velemen
        
        keeps water from leaving
        
        acts as water barrier
    - - attached to trees
  - - - important for trees in stormy climates
    - - 20-50 cm
  - - - allows growth before leaves come
- - - - mature endodermis keeps water in
      - powerful water absorb in root hair
        
        causes root pressure
      - watertight sheath around vascular tissue
    - - have only casparian strips
      - slow to develop
  - - - Initiates lateral roots
      - between vascular tissue and endodermis
    - - impermeable
      - controls minerals that enter xylem
    - - radial walls
        
        walls that touch other cells
      - tangenital walls
    - - Increases absorbtion
  - - - pro vascular tissue
    - - outermost cells
  - - - mitotically inactive region
  - - - middle lamella breaks down
      - develop dense starch
    - - base of root cap
- - - - increase surface area
      - behind zone of elongation
    - - behind root cap
      - cells undergo division, expansion
    - - Mucigel
        
        rich in carbs and amino acids
        
        Makes soil release nutrients
        
        Lubricates root throug in soil
      - forced through the soil
        
        worn away and renews
      - protects root apical meristem
    - - embedded in solid matrix
        
        all parts can't grow at once
      - no auxiliary buds
      - no leaf axials
      - No leaves or leaf scars
  - - - adventitious roots
      - increase size
        
        stolons or rhizozomes
      - cannot undergo secondary growth
    - - Advantages roots
        
        increase absorptive and transport capapbilities
      - plant ages
        
        more root primidoria initiated
      - radicle dies
    - - woody plants
        
        undergo secondary growth
      - Become swollen like taproot
      - Produce more lateral roots
    - - Develops from embryonic root
- - - - stops growth with side facing object
  - - - protects against cold
  - - - thick walls
- - - - Blade of several parts
        
        better adapted for wind
        
        blades attached along rachis
        
        Has many small blades
        
        more blades protect the plant
        
        Leaflets
    - - Blade of one part
  - - - cells cut off leaf when life is over
    - - prevents shading
  - - - flat harvesting part
- - - - divide to up to 10-20 bundles
      - branch from stem vb
  - - - bundle sheath
      - where lateral veins emerge
        
        help support the leaf
        
        minor veins
        
        H2O released
  - - - spongy mesophyll
    - - 1-5 layers thick
      - photosynthetic tissues
  - - - Outer walls made with cutin
        
        stomata allows entry
        
        cutin builds up as a pure layer
        
        makes wall impermeable to H2O
      - controls in and out of leaf
- - - - some have no predetermined size
      - lamina becomes broad and expanded
    - - succulent stems store water
      - one leaf grows after another
  - - - leaf primordium
        
        perenial plants
        
        started summer before maturity
        
        compound leaf
        
        initiate leaflets
        
        becomes thicker
        
        extends upward as cone
- - - - almost always lignified
    - - Long fibers
        
        Flexible
        
        Elastic secondary walls
        
        found in wood
      - Short sclereids
        
        Brittle and inflexible
        
        hard, impenetrable
        
        shells of walmuts
        
        pits of peaches
        
        produced by cell division
    - - Elastic
        
        return to original size
        
        can be deformed
  - - - Numerous chloroplasts
      - Involved in photosynthesis
    - - large plasma membrane
        
        large-scale molecular pumping
      - Mediate short transport
    - - few chloroplasts
      - Thin walls
      - Secrete
        
        nectar
        
        resins
        
        fragrances
        
        oils
        
        mucilage
  - - - wall exhibits plasticity
      - Thin in some places
      - Thick in some places
      - Tips elongate
        
        collenchyma can be streched
- - - - auxiliary bud
        
        Miniature shoot
      - area above leaf attachment
    - - Positions leaves so not shading one another
    - - Internodes long and thin
      - leaves dont expand
  - - - "potatoes"
  - - - region between nodes
- - - - tracheids
      - perforation
        
        each element must have 2
      - vessel elements
        
        entire stack is a vessel
        
        must get water from parenchyma
        
        plasmodesmata in walls
      - Water and minerals enter
      - secondary wall impermeable to water
        
        Primary wall uncovered
        
        water makes it collapse inward
    - - sieve cells
      - sieve tube members
        
        shorter than the plant
        
        sieve elements
        
        nuclie degenerate but cell stays alive
        
        parenchyma cells
  - - - swell with water
      - allow entry of CO2
      - stoma
      - open during daytime
    - - builds up to make cuticle
      - inhibit CO2 entry
      - layer of wax may be present
      - Defense again fungi, bacteria
  - - - storage parenchyma and mechanical sclerenchyma
      - mixed with sieve elements and companion cells
    - - Xyloem and phloem parallel
    - - parenchyma similar to the cortex
- - - - constitute 1st xylems
    - - largest tracheary elements of all
- - - - 90% of an animals food is respired
        
        10% is retained as growth
      - starts with autotrophs
      - flow of energy through the food chain
    - - release minerals into soil
      - prevent plants from growing rapidly
      - breaks down remains
      - fungi, bacteria
    - - herbivores eat the primary producers
        
        secondary producer
      - autotrophs are primary producers
        
        first stem in food webs
      - accounts for almost all energy input
  - - - high number of species
        
        creates more niches
      - competition can be intense
  - - - plants change drastically during seasons
        
        late fall brings death to many plants
        
        spring is renewed activity
      - as long as a decade
      - can be as short as a day
  - - - similar climate
        
        similar physiognomic structures
- - - - K selected species face intense competition #
        
        adaptions that increase use of a resource
      - population is close to max density
      - in K habitats almost all sites are filled
    - - fire or flood kills many individuals #
        
        predators/pathogens move slow
        
        defenses aren't important
        
        pioneers with many seeds have an advantage
        
        few survivors have plentiful resources
      - disturbances usually produce r- conditions
  - - - many factors cause fluctuation between death and birth rate
      - measured under ideal conditions
      - represented as r #
        
        plants with many viable seeds have large r
      - number of offspring that can reproduce
    - - time from birth of individual to its birth off offspring
    - - 4 offspring
      - The offspring than double
        
        8 offspring
        
        Than those offspring double
        
        16 offspring
  - - - Uniform distribution
        
        not common in natural habitats
        
        all individuals evenly spaced from neighbors
        
        orchards or plantations
      - clumped distribution
        
        seeds fall close to trees #
        
        spacing between plants is small or large
      - random distribution
        
        no predictive value
        
        no obvious, identifiable pattern
    - - limiting factor
        
        any factor can act as limiting factor
        
        photosynthesis
        
        In areas of high light intensity
        
        CO2 is limiting factor
        
        In areas with high concentration of CO2
        
        light is limiting factor
        
        applies to everything within a plants interations
        
        determines the health of the plant
- - - - parts of plants are
        
        spores, pollen, fruits, seeds, and vegetative propagules
    - - winter area, summer area, and routes all habitiat
  - - - predation
        
        fungi and bactia
        
        described as pathogenic rather than predatory
        
        usually the species benefitting uses other for resources
        
        animals eating plants
        
        one species benefits and the other is harmed
      - Comensal relationships
        
        birds nest in trees
        
        tree is unharmed
        
        bird typically benefits
        
        one species benefits and the other is unaffected
      - plants and animals have many mutualistic realtionships
        
        ants-acacias
        
        the ants attack animals that touch the plant
        
        acacia leaflit tips are filled with glycogen
        
        ants have food source
        
        acacia thorns serve as homes for the ant
        
        seed dispersal #
        
        pollination
      - animals, fungi, and prokaryotes
    - - several individuals can interact with one another
        
        If it is disadvantageous to both
        
        competition
        
        competitive exclusion #
        
        less adapted species is excluded
        
        use similar resources
        
        situation where two populations do not grow well together
        
        if it benefits both oragnisms
        
        mutualism
    - - some trees create a dense canopy
        
        this canopy blocks light
        
        hinder light energy from reaching ground
        
        modifies the habitat
      - Any individual modifies the habitat
  - - - fire is common in dry climates
        
        annuals and short live plants do not survive
        
        underground seeds do
        
        many grasses benefit from fires
        
        many species have become fire resistant
        
        many pines have thick bark
        
        protects vascular cambium
        
        happens through natural selection
      - man-made disturbances
        
        insecticides, herbicides, hunting, and habitat destruction
      - produce a radical change in an ecosystem quickly
      - fires, landslides, avalanches, and floods
    - - Average moisture not very important
        
        moisture affects metabolism
        
        Once there is sufficient water
        
        too much water drowns roots
        
        the roots cannot get soil oxygen
        
        Increased water increases growth and reproduction
        
        heavy rain/snow at certain times
        
        slow rain year round
        
        produce different ecosystems
      - Average temp not that important
        
        more important is the extremes
        
        Growing season is determined
        
        first autumn killing frost
        
        Last spring killing frost
        
        lowest winter and highest summer
      - most species only live in certain climates
        
        restricts life outside of those regions
    - - Altitude
        
        high altitudes
        
        much of the year is cold
        
        water is mostly snow and ice
        
        short growing season
        
        poor soil
        
        high winds
      - Latitude
        
        amount of light energy striking a given area
        
        when the sun is low
        
        less energy is recieved
        
        maximum radiation is at equator
        
        sun is directly overhead
        
        varies with latitude
        
        contributes many factors to abiotic environment
        
        Arctic and Antarctic points
        
        mid winter nights
        
        mid summer days
        
        24 hours long
        
        at the equator
        
        plants dont measure season by photoperiod
        
        no seasonal variation occurs
        
        all days are 12 hours long
    - - C Horizon
        
        below B hrozion
        
        parent rock and rock fragments
      - The B Horizion
        
        Below A horizion
        
        contains humus and clay
        
        rich in nutrients
        
        "zone of deposition"
        
        where material from A horizon accumulate
      - The A Horizion
        
        "zone of leaching"
        
        uppermost layer
        
        rainwater washes nutrients downwards
        
        consists of litter and diesease
      - soil is breakdown of rock
        
        pioneers
        
        associated with N-fixing prokaryotes
        
        must tolerate severe conditions
        
        first plants to invade a new soil
        
        soil has a hard time holding water
        
        soil is sandy
        
        first soil is thin and resemble the rock