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Coures Mindmap, Chapter 22: Seed Plants I: Seed Plants Without Flowers…

- - - - contained numerous sporangia
      - was cup shaped
- - - - foliage leaves bore seeds
- - - - leaves similar to those of dicots
      - mostly vines or small shrubs
      - 30 species
    - - only two leaves
      - short, wide stem
      - exists only in deserts of South Africa or in cultivation
      - only species in the genus
    - - touch shrubs and brushes
      - about 40 species
- - - - popular ornamental
      - ovules
        
        completely unprotected at maturity
        
        at ends of short stalk
        
        occur in pairs
      - reproduction is dioecious
        
        cones are not produced
      - wood like conifers
        
        lacks vessels and axial parenchyma
      - looks much like a large dicot tree
- - - - compound
    - - simple
  - - - monopodial trees
        
        many branches
        
        one main trunk
- - - - evolved into ovules with integuments
    - - holding area for microspores
        
        evolved into pollen grains
    - - some fossils help us understand the early stages
      - similar to angiosperm ovules
      - permitted sperm cells to swim to the egg
      - hole in integument
    - - from Middle Devonian Period
      - Chauleria
  - - - heterosporous
- - - - occurs in monocots
      - form of primary growth
      - addition of adventitious roots in palms
      - increased width
  - - - parenchyma cells undergo division
        
        differentiate into secondary vascular bundles
      - conducting cells are absent
      - vascular cambium arises outside the outermost vascular cambium bundles
    - - many vascular cambium
      - increased storage parenchyma
    - - example
        
        Bauhinia
      - advantage: flexibility
      - two sectors are active; two sectors are inactive
    - - protects phloem from insects
      - located between two bands of xylem
      - secondary phloem
- - - - protrude outward
      - contain more layers of cells
      - regions of aerenchymatous cork
  - - - outer
      - inner
    - - layers of these are called periderm
        
        roots and stem grows interior to it
        
        offers temporary protection
- - - - late wood
        
        larger and heavier
        
        low proportions of wide vessels
      - early wood
        
        high proportions of wide vessels
        
        also known as spring wood
    - - ring porous
      - diffuse porous
  - - - fragrant
      - dry
      - dark
    - - new layer formed each year
      - moist
      - light
  - - - radial system #
        
        cell types present in wood
        
        eudicots
        
        ray parenchyma cells
        
        procumbent cells
        
        upright cells
        
        conifers
        
        ray parenchyma
        
        ray tracheids
        
        develops from ray initial
      - axial system #
        
        cell types present in wood
        
        eudicots
        
        parencyma
        
        fibers
        
        vessels
        
        tracheids
        
        conifers
        
        tracheids
        
        parenchyma (rare)
        
        fibers (rare)
        
        always contains tracheary elements
        
        derived from fusiform initials
- - - - irregular, non horizontal pattern
    - - regular horizontal rows
  - - - ray initials
      - fusiform initials
    - - connects on each side with fascicular cambia
    - - cells divide instead of maturing
  - - - shorter
      - less cuboidal
  - - - perpendicular to cambium's surface
      - divide longitudinally
    - - elongate cells are produced here
- - - - results are usually unknown until the plant dies
  - - - difficult to know the genotype is
      - dominant allele masks recessive allele
    - - phenotype differs from both homozygous phenotypes
      - neither parental trait dominates the other
  - - - discovered by Gregor Mendel
        
        used Pea Plants
      - shows a 1:2:1 ratio for inherited traits
    - - plants can be crossed with another plant with the same genotype
      - plant's own pollen fertilizes its own eggs
- - - - transposons
        
        carry genes that code for proteins not associated with transposition
        
        like an insertion sequence
      - insertion sequences
        
        contain the genes that code for enzymes
        
        only a few thousand base pairs long
    - - due to short regions of self-complementary sequence
    - - can be caused by many methods
    - - radiation from radioactive substances
      - certain chemicals
        
        many are man made
      - X-rays
      - ultraviolet light
- - - - runs into adjacent replicons
      - where DNA uncoils and separates
  - - - has one old molecule
      - has one new molecule
- - - - may have up to 600 paralogs of
    - - each will involve independently
      - originated duplicates of a wild-allele
    - - change in chromosomes number per nucleus
    - - can undergo meiosis
      - plants with more than two sets of chromosomes
  - - - outcome depends on pollen and ovule parents
    - - responsible for certain types of variegation
        
        presence of spots or sectors that are white, red, or orange
        
        in plants
- - - - proportional to physical spacing between genes
        
        measure between them in recombination percentages
        
        map unit
        
        centimorgan
  - - - one gene moves separately from the other
      - independent assortment
    - - when genes are close together
      - linkage
- - - - poorly drained soil
      - day/night cycles
      - flooding :
- - - - barley (most common)
      - wheat
      - rice
      - corn
  - - - Tequila
      - Vodka
      - Brandy
  - - - devastating vineyards
      - rendering wine grapes useless
    - - peach (uncommon)
      - elderberry (uncommon)
      - grapes (most used)
- - - - reduces oxygen buildup
      - creates proton gradients for future energy needs
  - - - lactic acid acts as the final electron acceptor
      - also known as fermentation
      - occurs more quickly than aerobic respiration
    - - facultatively anaerobic
      - obligate anaerobes (bacteria)
  - - - uses oxygen as its electron acceptor
      - produces much more ATP than anaerobic respiration
    - - heat-generating respiration
    - - intermediates between each step:
        
        pentose phosphate pathway
      - Glycolysis
        
        occurs in cytoplasm
        
        Citric Acid Cycle
        
        occurs in mitochondrial matrix
        
        Electron Transport Chain
        
        occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane (3.1 on image)
    - - obligate aerobes
      - facultatively aerobic
- - - - direction of transport can change
      - only stays in solution under pressure
      - within uninjured phloem
    - - is carried into cell center
        
        forms a P-protein plug when the mass is too large
      - network adjacent to the inner surface of uninjured sieve elements
  - - - one or several companion cells
      - a conducting cells
  - - - inner bark of storage roots and stems
      - network of bundles in tubers and corms
      - fine veins in leaves
- - - - lifting water to the top of the tree takes plentiful energy
    - - cellulose, enzymes, DNA, and sugar molecules attach to water
      - water molecules interacting with other substances
    - - forces act equally on all molecules
  - - - stomata close during the day
      - stomata open at night
    - - upward from shoots to roots
      - water movement
    - - influenced by water loss
  - - - expands until its surface encounters a solid barrier
      - air bubble
    - - destroys usefulness of an entire vessel or tracked
      - hydrogen bonding is broken over a large region
    - - transcuticilar
      - transstomatal
    - - molecules diffuse from intercellular spaces to the atmosphere
      - widely accepted model
- - - - must transport potassium ions from surrounding cells
      - must open
    - - have little internal pressure
      - shunken
- - - - related to number of particles in solution
      - effect of solutes on water
    - - can be negative when something is stressed
      - can be positive when something is compressed
  - - - protoplast can pull away from cell wall
    - - cannot generate enough pressure to stop water absorption
      - weak and deformable walls
      - immature
    - - process in which animal cells burst
- - - - vesicles fuse with another organelle
      - vesicles migrate through cytoplasm
    - - molecular pump
        
        binds to molecule and ATP
        
        protein
      - molecules are forced across membrane
  - - - have little biological significance
      - allow solutes to dissolve through them quickly
    - - allow certain substances to pass through
      - lipid/protein cell membranes
    - - do not allow anything to pass through
      - occur as isolation barriers
- - - - weeds
  - - - volcanoes producing lava
  - - - nurse plants
  - - - pollinators and their plants
- - - - low quality patch
    - - high quality patch
  - - - populations within individuals patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
      - region of environment is composed of many discrete patches in which species can live
      - empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
      - some patches are occupied by the species where as other suitable patches are not
- - - - just enough species to keep population density at a stable point
      - alternatives
        
        fixed quota harvesting
        
        fixed effort harvesting
    - - indicate prey population sizes
      - illustrates prey density effects
    - - factor in the loss of species diversity
    - - prey dependent
      - handling time
      - feeding rate
        
        faster with more prey individuals
  - - - examples
        
        pollinators
        
        light
        
        minerals
        
        water
      - can lead to increased growth rates
    - - interference competition
      - exploitation competition
  - - - makes four predictions
        
        predators broaden their diet
        
        plants will be eaten depending on their abundance
        
        predators prefer prey that yields high energy
        
        some prey items will always be eaten; others will never be eaten
    - - examines interactions between herbivores and plants
    - - probability of prey encounters
      - probability that something attacked will be successfully consumed
      - predator's decision to attack
- - - - expressed by formula: S=cA^z
- - - - form genera
  - - - chosen as the basis of classification
      - very easy to observe
- - - - ancestral condition
      - derived condition
    - - use nodes
- - - - unique nature of sieve tube plastids
      - have perisperm
      - produce betalains
      - share many derived characters
      - large number of families
    - - highly modified plants
      - small order
  - - - deter predators
      - very potent chemicals
    - - sympetalous flowers
      - stamens alternate with petals
      - very few stamens
    - - morning glory
      - sunflower
      - petunia
      - periwinkle
  - - - contain ornamental genera
    - - eurosids I
      - fabids
- - - - Tulipa
      - Lilium
    - - mostly bulbs
  - - - due to selection pressures associated with an aquatic habitat
  - - - contains the palms
      - about 3,500 species
    - - Zingiberaceae
        
        has about 1,000 species
        
        largest family
      - contains familiar house plants
    - - wind pollinated
      - has about 8,000 species
      - contains grass families
- - - - Amborella
- - - - speaks of generalized flowers
- - - - wheat
      - corn
    - - indehiscent
      - dehiscent
    - - fleshy
      - dry
  - - - non ovarian tissue is present
    - - refers to fruits containing only ovary tissue
- - - - indeterminate
      - determinate
- - - - result if receptacle tissues grow upward
  - - - staminate flowers on same plant as carpellate flowers
    - - produce only carpellate flowers
    - - carpels
      - stamens
- - - - pericarp
      - exocarp
      - endocarp
      - mesocarp
  - - - complex life cycle
    - - grows from spores undergoing mitosis
    - - mammalian gamets
        
        microgametes
        
        form from microspores
        
        megagametes
        
        form from megaspores
      - must undergo syngamy
      - can fuse with other gametes
    - - sporophytes are always diploid
        
        meiosis results in spores
    - - either
        
        eggs
        
        sperm
      - haploid sex cells produced from adult diploid parents
  - - - matured from integuments surrounding nucleus
    - - embryo is an elongate clyinder
        
        hypocotyl
        
        epicotyl
        
        radicle
    - - cells at one end divide to grow into cotyledons
      - pushes embryo into endosperm
  - - - three main parts
        
        stigma
        
        ovary
        
        style
      - located at the highest level on the receptacle
      - collectively make the "gynoecium"
    - - two parts
        
        anther
        
        filament
      - collectively known as the "androecium"
      - above the petals
    - - collectively make the "corolla"
      - above sepals on the receptacle
    - - typically the toughest, thickest, waxiest flower part
      - modified leaves that enclose other parts of the maturing flower
      - lowermost and outmost of floral appendages
  - - - endosperm nucleus undergoes fissions
      - in angiosperms only
    - - Karyogamy
      - plasmogamy
  - - - central cell
        
        egg apparatus
        
        consists of two synergids and an egg
        
        three antipodal cells
        
        has two polar nuclei
      - embryo sac
        
        multinucleate megagametophyte
      - forms from megaspore
      - within the ovule
    - - located within original pollen cell wall
      - very small
      - developed from microspores
- - - - improved by modifications
- - - - example
        
        potatoes
      - grow for a short period
      - horizontal
    - - examples
        
        bamboo
        
        canna lilies
        
        irises :
      - allow a plant to spread underground
      - fleshy, horizontal
    - - vertical, thick
      - examples
        
        gladiolus
        
        crocus
      - thin, papery leaves
    - - examples
        
        daffodils
        
        garlic
        
        onions
      - thick, fleshy leaves
      - short shoots
  - - - miniature shoot
      - apical meristem
    - - narrow
        
        alfalfa sprouts
      - intermediate
      - wide
        
        asparagus
- - - - become metaphloem
        
        can differentiate fully
    - - mature as protophloem
        
        can never become differentiated
  - - - protoxylem
        
        primary walls are glued to elongating cells around them
        
        dead at maturity
      - metaxylem
        
        largest tracheary element
        
        only differentiate after surrounding cels have stopped elongating
- - - - collateral xylem and phloem strands
      - located interior to the cortex
      - surround the pith
    - - conducting cells
        
        sieve element
        
        sieve tube members
        
        angiosperms only
        
        companion cells
        
        flat ends
        
        large sieve areas on side and end walls
        
        short and wide
        
        sieve cells
        
        all nonangiosperm vascular plants
        
        albuminous cells
        
        pointed ends
        
        distributed sieve areas
        
        long and narrow
    - - secondary wall
        
        has thickening to provide support to the primary wall
        
        helical thickening
        
        reticulate thickening
        
        scalariform thickening
        
        impermeable to water
      - primary wall
        
        must have uncovered parts for water transport
      - conducting cells
        
        traechery elements #
        
        tracheids
        
        circular bordered pits
        
        vessel elements
  - - - cutin
      - cuticle
      - stoma
        
        stomatal pore
        
        guard cells
- - - - mechanical
        
        fibers
        
        sclereids
      - conducting
        
        vessel elements
        
        tracheids
  - - - some fruits (i.e. pea pods)
      - stamen
    - - transfer cells
      - glandular cells
      - chlorenchyma cells
- - - - leaves of sundew; Drosera
      - Venus flytraps; Dionaea muscipula
  - - - Stone plants; Lithops
  - - - agave
      - holly
  - - - small and rarely compound
      - primary role is protection
    - - contain cells that can sense contact with an object
      - grow indefinitely
    - - mesophyll consists of closely packed fibers
      - have no blade
  - - - arborvitae; Thuja
      - cypresses; Cupressus
- - - - protect the shoot apical meristem
      - can contribute to photosynthesis
    - - may fuse in a single trace
      - may remain distinct
    - - water Lillies
      - palms
      - celery
      - rhubarb
  - - - stem
        
        guard cells and trichomes
        
        ordinary epidermal cells
      - leaf
        
        cutin on cell walls
        
        guard cells and trichomes
        
        ordinary epidermal cells
  - - - starch storing cells
      - mucilage
    - - causes difficulty for insects trying to eat
      - around vascular tissue
    - - lateral veins emerge from
        
        branch into minor veins
  - - - "spongy mesophyll"
      - carbon dioxide diffuses rapidly away from stomata
      - loose aerenchyma
    - - good area for dissolution
      - palisade parenchyma
- - - - have accordion-like pleated surface #
      - store water
    - - interrupts protoxylem and protophloem
    - - abaxial epidermis
    - - provides hoodlike shape
  - - - initiating perennial plants
        
        little mitosis will occur
        
        mainly maturation
        
        before they mature
        
        in the summer or autumn
      - lamina expansion #
        
        stomata, trichomes, and vascular bundles differentiate
      - all cells in wings are meristematic
      - becomes taller than shoot apical meristem
      - extends upward as a narrow cone
        
        establishes bulk of midrib
- - - - adjacent undamaged cells for leaf scar
      - oriented perpendicular to the petiole
    - - compound
        
        pinnately compound
        
        palmately compound
        
        rachis #
        
        has leaflets
        
        blade divided into several individual parts
      - simple
        
        blade with just one part
    - - sessile leaf
        
        sheathing leaf base
        
        leaf without petiole
      - petiole
        
        holds blade into the light
        
        allows leaf flutter
      - ventral surface
        
        smooth
      - dorsal surface
        
        large veins protrude as a backbone
- - - - brace trunk against wind
      - certain tropical trees
  - - - may be simple or complex
      - energy needed to form these is supplied by legume root cells
      - formed by adjacent cortical cells undergoing mitosis
    - - occurs in plant cell wall
      - tube used by bacterium
  - - - endomycorrhizal association
        
        do not break plasma or vacuole membrane
        
        penetrate root cortex
        
        in herbaceous plants
      - ectomycorrhizal relationship
        
        never invade cortex cells
        
        penetrates between the outermost root cortex cells
        
        exists in fungal hyphae
- - - - on the edges proliferate
      - close to root meristem are meristematic
      - small and meristematic when first formed
  - - - cortex and epidermis
        
        often die and are shed from the root
        
        may be superfluous
    - - functions to keep water in
      - result of continued endodermis maturation
    - - cells with only Casparian strips
      - continue maturation
      - unchanged cells
  - - - resistant to harmful agents
      - central region
      - mitotically inactive
  - - - lateral roots are initiated here
      - between vascular tissue and endodermis
    - - have altered walls (Casparian strips)
        
        control mineral transport entering xylem
        
        impermeable
      - have tangential walls
    - - continue to enlarge
      - transfer minerals from epidermis to vascular tissue
- - - - hairs increase surface area
      - epidermal cells extend as trichomes
      - behind zone of elongation
    - - cells undergo division here
      - only a few millimeters long
      - behind root cap and root apical meristem
    - - dictysomes of some of these cells secrete mucigel
      - constantly being worn away and renewed by cell multiplication
      - protects root apical meristem
      - thick layer of cells
    - - only elongate at small meristematic regions
      - no leaves or leaf scars
      - no leaf axils or axillary buds
  - - - form adventitious roots
      - radicle dies during or after germination
      - present in some eudicots
      - present in most monocots
    - - can produce more lateral roots
      - examples with dozens of lateral roots
        
        carrots
        
        turnips
        
        beets
      - develops from radicle
      - present in most seed roots
- - - - pushes outward
      - organizes root apical meristem
- - - - addition of oxygen from photosynthesis
      - derived from early second atmosphere
    - - allowed for aerobic respiration
      - allowed the world to rust
        
        lowered concentration of free oxygen
  - - - reducing atmosphere
        
        powerful reducing agents
        
        lack of molecular oxygen
        
        early second atmosphere
      - second atmosphere
        
        meteorites
        
        produced
        
        water
        
        ammonia
        
        hydrogen sulfide
        
        methane
        
        replaced first atmosphere that was lost in space
        
        produced by released gases from rock matrix
    - - chemosynthetic life
        
        lack of free molecular oxygen
        
        had basically no time limits
    - - rainstorms
      - volcanoes
      - electricity
      - heat
      - UV and radiation
  - - - generated ATP by fermentation with glycolysis
      - may have absorbed ATP
    - - present in a virtually all organisms
  - - - contain alcohols, sugars, amino acids, nitrogenous bases
    - - contain amino acids
      - contain organic compounds
  - - - not postulated
      - controlled only by relative solubility
      - formed at random
  - - - absorption by clay particles
      - formation of seaside pools at high tide
- - - - adaptive radiation
        
        can occur in mainland populations
        
        genetic drift #
        
        founder individuals
        
        initial gene pool is extremely small
        
        species rapidly diverges into new species
        
        special case of divergent evolution
      - biological reproductive barriers
        
        example
        
        monkey flower; Mimulus lewisii
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        grow together
        
        two groups become reproductively isolated
        
        differences in flower, color, shape, or fragrance
        
        prevents successful gene flow
      - abiological reproductive barriers
        
        example
        
        mountain ranges
        
        geographic speciation
        
        when speciation results
        
        allopatric
        
        prevents two populations from exchanging genes
        
        physical, nonliving feature
    - - seed dispersal
        
        caused by wind, flooding, and stream flow
        
        migratory animals can disperse seeds
        
        long-distance dispersal
      - vegetative propagation
        
        various alleles come together by gene flow
        
        reproduce vegatatively
        
        small mobile pieces
      - pollen transfer
        
        animal-mediated pollenation
        
        contributes to gene flow
        
        wind distributed pollen
        
        conifers
        
        grasses
        
        ragweed
        
        all alleles are present in its pollen grains
        
        carry one haploid genome
  - - - cacti and euphorbias
- - - - new alleles increase
      - existing alleles decrease in frequency
    - - can be small or large
      - examples
        
        molten rock destroying everything in an area
        
        droughts
        
        floods
        
        volcanic eruption produces poisonous gas
      - organisms cannot adapt to these
    - - carried out in conjunction with artificial mutation
      - examples
        
        selective breeding of animals
        
        selective breeding of crops
      - humans change frequency of gene pool
    - - voluntary decision making
      - purpose
      - planning
      - intention
    - - does not cause mutations
      - can only act on preexisting alleles
      - survival of the fittest
      - most significant in gene pool changes
      - conditions
        
        progeny must differ from each other in their alleles
        
        more offspring produced than can be supported
  - - - recently flooded area covered with rich sediments
      - recently burned area
      - sides of a road cut
- - - - summarizes megaphyll evolution
  - - - whorl of fused leaves at the nodes
      - jointed structure
  - - - fern allies
        
        Psilotales
      - ferns
        
        Marattiales
- - - - optimized lycophyte sporophytes
    - - important differences
        
        contain a single developed trace of vascular tissue
        
        large enations
  - - - protect the species
      - compact groups
- - - - lateral sporangia
      - xylem was an exarch protostele
      - sporangia opened transversely along top edge
  - - - example
    - - simple bundle of xylem
      - cortex of parenchyma
      - epidermis with a cuticle
      - central cells were sporogenous
      - equal dichotomous branching
- - - - Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
        
        relatively inefficient
        
        differs from C4 plants
        
        the stomata open when it is cool
        
        the stomata open only at night
        
        similar to process in C4 metabolism
      - C4 metabolism
        
        (common names) examples of plants having this:
        
        spurges
        
        purslanes
        
        sedges
        
        beets
        
        ice plants
        
        daises
        
        amaranths
        
        little photorespiration
        
        carbon dioxide is concentrated in a leaf
        
        occurs in leaves with Kranz anatomy
- - - - transport
        
        noncyclic electron transport
        
        doesn't produce enough ATP for stroma reactions
        
        cyclic electron transport
        
        produces adequate ATP for stroma reactions
      - important structures
        
        thylakoid lumen
        
        increased concentration of protons
        
        stroma
        
        decreased concentration of protons
        
        grana/granum
      - chemiosmotic phosphorylation
    - - light hits the antenna complex
        
        transferred to reaction center
        
        Photosystem II
        
        gets new electrons from water
        
        given name "P680"
        
        Photosystem I
        
        produces NADPH
        
        has electron acceptor "Fx"
        
        absorbs red light most efficiently
        
        given name "P700"
      - accessory pigments
        
        carotenoids
        
        Chlorophyll b
      - absorption spectrum
        
        shows that Chlorophyll a is an essential photosynthetic pigment
    - - electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        encompasses:
        
        radio waves
        
        visible lights
        
        microwaves
        
        infrared lights
        
        ultraviolet lights
        
        X-Rays
        
        gamma rays
      - radiation
        
        treated in waves as photons
        
        treated physically as quanta/quantum
  - - - PGAL conversion to dihydroxyacetone phosphate
      - gluconeogenesis
    - - Short-term
      - Long-term
      - Intermediates-term
  - - - energized
        
        by converting 3-phosphoglycerate into 3-diphosphoglycerate
      - reduced
        
        by NADPH to PGAL
    - - RuBP
    - - mediates oxygen-producing photosynthesis
      - most abundant protein on Earth
      - can make up 30% of protein in a leaf
    - - Calvin
      - C3 Cycle
      - Benson Cycle
- - - - Phosphorylation
        
        energy source: sunlight
        
        occurs in chloroplasts
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        energy source: oxidations with oxygen
        
        occurs in mitochondria
      - Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        energy source: reactions without oxygen
        
        occurs in cytosol
  - - - NADPH
      - NADH
    - - NADP+
      - NAD+
- - - - represented as pyramid of energy
      - mineral flow
      - carbon flow
      - energy flow
        
        energy is lost as it is transferred through trophic level
    - - decomposers
        
        vitally important role
        
        fungi and bacteria
      - primary producers
        
        autotrophs
      - secondary consumers
        
        carnivores
      - primary consumers/ secondary producers
        
        herbivores
  - - - almost infinite number of combinations
    - - tress
      - herbs
      - shrubs
  - - - species' tolerance ranges
      - soil
      - climate
- - - - allelochemics
        
        example
        
        purple salvias; Salvia leucophylla
        
        can establish zones
        
        chemicals that inhibit other plants
      - types
        
        random
        
        uniform
        
        clumped
    - - soil factors
        
        include mineral composition and soil texture
        
        produce abrupt boundaries
      - biotic factors
        
        critical
      - limiting factor
        
        can be any factor in an ecosystem
        
        applies to aspects of a plant's interaction with its habitat
  - - - r selected species
        
        small shrubby perennials
        
        annuals
      - r conditions produced by disturbances #
    - - K-selected species
        
        increased adaptations
        
        face intense competition
        
        examples
        
        bristle-cone pines
        
        Douglas firs
  - - - represented by letter "K"
    - - generation time
      - intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        AKA biotic potential
        
        represented by letter "r"
- - - - modifies habitat just by existing there
    - - add great complexity to a plant's habitat
      - relationships
        
        pathogenic
        
        predation
        
        commensal
        
        mutualism
      - examples
        
        prokaryotes
        
        fungi
        
        animals
    - - geographic range
        
        ecotypes
        
        before subspecies
        
        beginning of divergent speciation
      - niche #
        
        different species occupy different niches
        
        set of aspects that directly affect a species
      - role of competition
        
        competitive exclusion
      - interaction
        
        competition
        
        mutualism
  - - - affect biotic factors directly
        
        little impact on abiotic factors
      - examples
        
        man made
        
        habitat destruction
        
        insecticides
        
        hunting
        
        herbicides
        
        natural
        
        floods
        
        landslides
        
        fires
        
        avalanches
      - produces significant change in an ecosystem
    - - tolerance range
        
        varies greatly from species to species
      - has many components
        
        winds
        
        temperature
        
        rainfall
        
        relative humidity
      - critically important to all organisms
    - - can indicate seasons and photoperiod
      - control day length
    - - soil profiles
        
        three layers
        
        A horizon
        
        B horizon
        
        contains hummus and clay
        
        where materials from horizon A accumulate
        
        zone of deposition
        
        C horizon
        
        composed of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        zone of leaching
        
        uppermost
      - pioneers
        
        first plants that invade a soil
      - soils formed by the breakdown of rock
- - - - termites are important grazers here
      - vegetation consists mostly of short grasses
      - low rainfall
    - - angiosperms are the dominant tree
      - rapid soil transformation
      - high precipitation
      - occur closely to equator
  - - - almost exclusively coniferous
      - ancient biome
      - taiga
        
        Russian name for this biome
    - - vegetation contains more grasses and sedges than alpine tundra
      - short growing season
      - permafrost
        
        permanently frozen soil
  - - - occurs as flat meadows with shallow marshes
      - dwarf plants are common
      - located above highest at which trees survive on a mountain
    - - rocky and thin soil
      - warm winter temperature
      - driest temperate regions
    - - chaparral
        
        well-known shrubland
        
        in California
      - similar to forest
    - - rich soil
      - central plains of North America
      - often referred to as prairie
  - - - rapid drainage
      - frequent fires
      - occurs at southern edge temperate deciduous forest
    - - occur in
        
        southwest Chile
        
        northwestern coast of United States
      - giant long-lived conifers
    - - rich species diversity
      - warm but not hot summers
      - cold winters
    - - occur at bases of mountains
- - - - Gondwanaland
        
        composed of
        
        Antartica
        
        India
        
        Australia
        
        Africa
        
        South America
        
        giant continent
      - several continents were distributed in the ocean
      - all life was aquatic
    - - Cretaceous period
        
        Atlantic Ocean was formed #
        
        South America separated from Africa
      - Jurassic Period
        
        Pangaea began to break up
        
        Tethys Sea was formed
      - many new plant groups evolved
      - no evidence of glaciation anywhere
      - worldwide climate was getting warmer
      - just after Permian Period
    - - Pangaea
        
        mountains formed from continents colliding
        
        had a diverse climate
        
        comprised of
        
        Gonwanaland
        
        Laurasia
        
        one supercontinent
      - life was beginning to move on land
- - - - oceanic
        
        air circulation pattens drive water
        
        trade winds
        
        push surface waters into equatorial currents
        
        blow across tropics from east to west
      - atmospheric
        
        continental climate
        
        continents cause precipitation change
        
        rain shadow
        
        decreased rain on one side
        
        found on mountains
        
        desert islands
        
        often no fresh water or lakes
        
        extremely dry