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Course Mind Map, Seed Plants 1: Seed Plants Without Flowers ("…
Course Mind Map
Seed Plants 1: Seed Plants Without Flowers ("Gymnosperms")
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Division Gentophyta
anthophytes
pollen cones
#
small bracts
compound
seed cones
#
extra layer of tissue around ovules
compound
3 groups of enigmatic plants
Welwitschia mirabillis
only 2 leaves
increasing longer
perennially from basal meristem
short, wide stems
Ephedra
reduced, scale-like leaves
tough
bushes
shurbs
40 species
Gnetum
broad leaves
mostly
shrubs
vines
30 species
Division Ginkgophyta: Maidenhair Tree
pollen is produced by catkin
no cones
ovules
reproduction
gymnospermous
dioecious
female
male
short shoots and long shoots
broad leaves
dichotomously branched veins
no vessles/axial parenchyma
wood is like conifers
large dicot tree
many branches
stout trunk
single living species
Ginkgo biloba
Division Cycadeoidophyta: Cycadeiods
#
megasporangium
integument
micropyle
cones contribute
megasporophylls
microsporpyhlls
numerous microsporangium
cup-shaped
2 groups differ in
leaf trace organization
stomatal complexes
identical to cycads
all extinct
Division Cycadophyta: Cycads
almost all tropical
unusual distribution
seed cones
#
large ovules
relictual
loose, aggresive
large
pollen cones
#
spirally arranged
shield-shaped microsporphylls
microsporangium
similar to seed ferns
#
permanent pith
rays
massive
tracheids
wide
long
manoxylic wood
#
secretory ducts
thick cortex
modern cycads
short
Macrozamia
can reach to 18 m tall
pinnately compound leaves
stout trunks
covered with bark
persistent leaf bases
Division Coniferophyta: Conifers
conifer pollen
proembryo
make the embryo
flowering plant
same as angiosperm embryo
suspensor
pushes cells deeper in megagametophyte
pines
shoots
short shoots
long needles
long shoots
papery leaves
cork cambium
phloem
resin canals
rays
tracheids
annual rings
#
summer wood
spring wood
monopodial
all have
seed cones
compound cones
short axis
cone bracts
axillary bud
microscopic
megasporophylls
ovuliferous scale
3 more items...
leaves
#
fruits of flowering plants
small trees
shrubs
herbs
Podocarpus
Juniperus
pollen cones
simple cones
short, unbranched axis
microsporophylls
leaves are simple needles/scales
endodermis
transfusion tissue
trachieds
parenchyma cells
venation is simple
one/two veins
perennial
live for many years
no bulbs or rhizomes
not
annuals
herbs
vines
moderate to gigantic size
redwoods of California
Sequoiadendron giganteum
diverse
Division Pteridospermophyta:Seed Ferns
cycadophytes
Upper Devonian Period
#
Stenomyelon
#
Aneurophytales
Pteridosperms
seed ferns
leaves
planar
compound
large
manoxylic wood
#
long-lived vascular cambium
phloem
xylem
woody trees w/ seeds
#
formed a grade
Cycadeoidophyta
cycadeoiods
all extinct
Cycadophyta
cycads
extant
Pteridospermophyta
seed ferns
all extinct
Division Progymnospermphyta: Progymnosperms
Trimerophytes
progymnosperms
no seeds/ovule precursors
produced true woody trees
Proteokalon
Triloboxylon
vascular cambium
secondary phloem
secondary growth
megaphyllous leaves
gave rise to
other gymnosperms
cycads
#
conifers
now extinct
pseudomonopodial branching
evolved from rhyniophytes
Evolution of Seeds
Upper Devonian Period
Archaeosperma arnoldii
megasporanium was surrounded by
integument
hole
micropyle
similar to pollen chamber
layer of tissue
one mother cell
one large megaspore w/ 3 aborted cells
Middle Devonian Period
species with heterospory
Chauleria
free-sporing species
spores cannot be identified w/ gametophyte
spores trapped in sporangium on
wood
leaves
#
Archaepteridales
order Archaeopteridales
Archaeopteris
reproduction
heterosporous
megaspores released
fronds
branched "leaflets"
stems had siphonostele
modern conifers/dicots
8.4 m tall
secondary phloen
abundant wood
Aneurphytales
vascular cambium
#
protostele
#
#
secondary growth
shrubs
large trees
mroe relictual species
Eospermatopteris
Triloboxylon
Tetraxylopteris
Proteokalon
Protopteridium
Aneuophyton
Concepts
evolution of seeds
all seed plants
classification used today
division Magnoliophyta
division Gnetophyta
division Ginkgophyta
division Coniferophyta
division Cycadophyta
classification from 1800s
Spermatophyta
Angiospermae
angiosperms
flowering plants
#
mature carpels
1 more item...
Gynospermae
group should be abandoned
gymnosperms
pine cones
naked ovules
ovules on flat sporophylls
2 major suites of characters
hard, strong little parenchyma
conifers
pycnoxylic wood
soft, spongy, parenchymatous wood
cycads
manoxylc wood
lycophytes/equisetophytes
seed plants
spermatophytes
monophyletic plants
lingophytes
vascular cambium
life cycle of vascular cryptogams
disadvantage
new sporophyte
has identical genes of maternal sporophyte
temporarily dependent on gametophyte
alternation of independent, heteromorphic generations
Structure of Woody Plants
#
Anomalous Forms of Growth
Unusual Primary Growth
palms
vascular cambium never develops
establishment growth
primary growth
Anomalous Secondary Growth
Secondary Growth in Monocots
secondary vascular bundles
phloem
xylem
palms
dragon trees
Joshua trees
Unequal Activity of Vascular Cambium
flexibility
Bauhinia
2 inactive
2 active
included Phloem
secondary phloem
between 2 bands of xylem
eudicots
alternative cambia
secondary bodies
Roots of Sweet Potatoes
increase in vascular cambia
speed up rate of storage capacity
storage paryenchyma cells increase
Secondary Growth in Roots
root vascular cambium
#
#
circular cambium
all parts grow at same rate
unequal growth stops
stems
conifers
woody angiosperms
Concepts
secondary growth
occurs in eudicots
most basal angiosperms
all gymnosperms
chemical and structural defenses
woody perennials
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seeds
#
annual herbs
seeds
must compete for new sites
shrubs
#
rhizomatous
Ferns
Bamboo
Irises
secondary tissues
secondary plant body
bark
#
conducting tissues
carbohydrates downward
water and minerals upward
wood
#
azaleas
oleanders
roses
Firs
Pines
Chestnuts
Sycamores
primary tissues
primary plant body
Outer Bark
Initiation of Cork Cambia
young tree bark
different
older tree bark
may be combo of tissues first
initiation time varies
Lenticels and Oxygen Diffusion
aerenchymatous cork
pathway for oxygen
lenticels
bases of cracks in bark
Cork and the Cork Cambium
cork cells
phellem cell
periderm
#
older secondary phloem
cortex
#
epidermis
impervious
tough
cork cambium
#
inner bark
outer bark
cuboidal cells
phellogen
phelloderm
Secondary Phloem
radial system
axial system
responsible for conduction
sieve tube members
conifers
companion cells
angiosperms
Secondary Xylem
Reaction Wood
conifers
compression wood
response to stress
Heartwood and Sapwood
tylosis
forming a plug
sapwood
formed by vascular cambium
forms heartwood annual ring
light wood
heartwood
dark wood
Growth RIngs
ring porous
honey locust
sassfras
red oak
diffuse porous
sugar maple
aspen
yellow birch
annual ring
#
#
late wood
summer wood
stronger
numerous fibers
lower number of wide vessels
early wood
spring wood
high number of wide tracheids
conifers
high number of wide vessels
Types of Wood Cells
secondary xylem
radial system
# :
simple
only parenchyma
rays
ray tracheids
procumbent cells
upright cells
oaks
axial system
woody angiosperms
softwoods
hard
hardwoods
soft
just tracheids
fibers
flexibility
strength
tracheary elements
conifers
pines
wood
parenchyma
schlreids
fibers
vessel elements
tracheids
Vascular Cambium
#
Arrangement of Cambium Cells
single tree/shrub
has single vascular cambium
forms narrow cylinder
ray initials
short vertical rows
fusiform initials
nonstoried cambium
storied cambium
few advanced eudicots
persimmon
redbud
Ray Initials
become storage
albuminous cells
gymnosperms
parenchyma cells
short, cuboidal cells
Fusiform Initials
thin primary walls
proplastids
cambial cells
narrow daughter cells
cells in inner side
secondary xylem
orientation is constant
bark never forms
on the interior side
wood never forms
outside vasicular cambium
longitudinal cell division
anticlinal walls
periclinal wall
#
elongate cell
becomes
secondary phloem
secondary xylem
elongate cell
becomes fusiform initial
long, tapered cells
dicots
conifers
Initiation of the Vascular Cambium
simple meristem
#
#
interfascicular cambium
#
mature parenchyma cells between bundles
fascicular cambium
"bundle"
Genetics
#
Other Aspects of Inheritance
Multiple Sets of Chromosomes and Gene Families
gene family
multiple copies of traits
paralogs
wild-type allele organized to similar
nondisjunction
a change in chromosome number per nucleus
polypoid
plants with more than two sets of chromosomes
triploid
lethal in animals
diploid fertilizing haploid
Lethal Alleles
can affect
structure of kistones
cellulose synthesis
DNA replication
respiration
presence of allele that can kill the plant
Maternal Inheritance
varigation
achlorophyllous crossed with chlorophyll-bearing
ovule parent
zygotes will have mutant plastids
pollen parent
zygotes will be green
when zygote obtains all plastids and mitochondria genomes
alleles of both parents transmitted equally
biparental inheritance
Multiple Genes for One Character
multiple phenotype effects of one mutation
pleiotropic effects
genes associated with traits
quantitative trait loci
multiple genes for each trait
epistasis
Arabidopis thaliana
abi-3
doesnt respond to produce asbisic acid
aba
doesnt produce enough abscisic acid
seeds are dormant at maturity
Dihybrid Crosses
two genes are studied and analyzed
Genes on the Same Chromosome
Linkage
Crossing-Over
space between mutants
one centimorgan
map unit
four possile gametes
last two
recombinant chromosomes
2.5, 2.5
first two
parental type chromosomes
47.5,47.5
selfing
would not be 9:3:3:1
may not be possible
two genes close together
two genes located far apart
occurs during prophase 1
Genes on Seperate Chromosomes
9:3:3:1 ratio
mammals may be infrequent
plants reproduce more
known possible gametes
punnett square
Independent Assortment
genes on separate chromosomes moving
Monohybrid Crosses
sexual production
#
cross
diploid
haploid
Multiple Alleles
many different phenotypes available
gene existing in many forms
X4
X3
X2
X1
Test Crosses
must be done with experimental crosses
homozygous groups
pure-bred lines
crossing a randomly picked heterozygous
with homozygous
complete dominance
hard to find and know
Monohybrid Crosses with Complete Dominance
not like the parent
allele is recessive
offspring is recessive only if both parents are
phenotype of hereozygous parent
allele is dominant
TT parent
= all T- offspring
Crossing Heterozygotes with Themselves
punnett square
#
1:2:1 ratio
produce 3 different types
RR, rr or Rr
a plant's pollen fertilizes itself
selfing
Monohybrid Crosses with Incomplete Dominance
offspring
first filial generation
can become F2
parents
parental generation
heterzygous
Rr
homozygous
RR or rr
Mendel
made the whole thing simpler
monohybrid cross
a single character that is studied and analyzed
Mutations
a change in DNA
inversion
pieces of DNA broken or tangled
insertion
the addition of an extra DNA
deletion
a piece of DNA is lost
smallest change is
point mutation
a single base is changed
DNA Repair Process
mutations occur in
enzymes that code for proteins
sunlight
some can repair the mutations
some get cancer easy
humans
3 billion base pairs
angiosperms
10-100 billion base pairs
organisms with short genomes
can replicate without errors
protozoans
algae
prokaryotes
repair rate
too ineffective
too efficient
certain mechanisms
recognize
other problems
loops
mismatches
Somatic Mutations
mutations occur in leaf cell nucleus'
prickly pear cactus
alder
blackberries
may not result in altered phenotype
not very important
in plants
mutations dont get passed on
gene leaf primordium
mutation is not passed on to offspring
mutations in cells
that never lead to sex cells
Effects of Mutations
#
natural selection
preserves
beneficial mutations
eliminates
deleterious mutations
point mutations
#
eliminate
recognition sites
start codons
make a new start codon
in promoter regions
can completely inactivate gene
code of extremely long protein
cannot fold properly
exons
cause protein active to not operate
generally unimportant
#
#
#
depends on
extent
position
nature
Causes of Mutations
radiation
x-rays
ultraviolet light
chemicals
man-made
mutagen
transposable elements
#
#
most powerful tools in
genetics anylysis
pieces of DNA that changes position
transpoon
codes for proteins
much longer
inserstion sequences
thousands of base pairs
splicing
cutting
insertion
#
enzymes being cut and rejoined
deletions
#
short regions of self-complimentary sequence
nitrous acid
causes mutations
Replication of DNA
as DNA uncoils and seperates
replication fork
new DNA pieces are
1000 nucleotides every second
ligated
allenzymes move forward
=
two new double helixes
once the double helix is cut
two strands are made
ribonucleotides are polymerized
short pieces
10 nucleotides long
primer RNA
used as substrates for DNA polymerase
#
semiconservative replicaation
forming a small bubble
replicon
Concepts
selective advantage of reproduction
asexually
#
offsprings have same DNA as parents
sexually
#
offsprings have combo of both parent's DNA
more likely to survive
genes
multiple forms =
alleles
phenotype
physical expression
genotype
caused by mutations
Genetics
the study of inheritance
Soils and Mineral Nutrition
#
Storage of Minerals Within Plants
some in seeds
protein bodies
mainly in vacuoles
storage mechanism
when essential minerals are low
Nitrogen Metabolism
Obtaining Nitrogen from Animals
ant-plants
mutualistic relationship
epiphytic
ferns
flowering plants
plants eating animals
carnivorous plants
Other Aspects of Prokaryotes and Nitrogen
oxidizing bacteria
nitrification
nitifying bacteria
Nitrogen Assimilation
amino group
transamination
glutamate
similar to electron transport chin
incorporation of ammonium in plant body
Nitrogen Reduction
reducing nitrogen to nitrate ions
ammonium
extremely energetic
Nitrogen Fixation
bacteria
Nostoc
Klebsiella
Clostridium
Azotobacter
have nitrogenase
human manufacturing
conversion of N2 gas to nitrate
Soils and Mineral Availability
weathering
chemical
alters soil chemistry
decreases soil particle size
chemical reactions
carbonic acid
acids
from decaying bodies
physical
breakdown of rock by;
micelles
#
clay particles
silt
fine sand
coarse sand
runoffs
ice
water movement
temperature changes
wind
Mycorrhizae and the Absorption of Phosphorous
90% of all plant species
symbiotic relationship with fungi
absorb phosphorous efficiently
mycorrhizae
The Endodermis and Selective Absorption of Substances
endodermis controls
apoplastic diffusion
selectively permeable membrane
diffuse of ions and molecules
Soil Acidity
natural selection
rainfalll
chemical nature of original rock
pH affects solubility
Cation Exchange
negative charges
positive charges
trapping protons
carbonic acid
#
freely dissolved in soil
Mineral Deficiency Diseases
Mobile and Immobile Elements
mobile
can be translocated
sulfer
potassium
phosphorous
nitrogen
magnesium
chlorine
immobile
stuck in one place
cannot move back to younger cells
iron
calcium
boron
Symptoms of Deficiency Diseases
low magnesium
leaf tissues between veins die
low potassium
leaf tips die
necrosis
death patches of tissue
low in nitrogen or phosphorous
purple hue
dark color
chlorosis
papery
brittle
yellowish color
lack of chlorophyll
Causes of Deficiency Disease
harvesting crops
soil depletion
most common
ornamentals
nonnative crop plants
human artificial selection
high fruit/seed yield
mineral deficiency
serpentine soil
aluminum toxicity
acid soils
able to adapt
saltbush
osmotic drought
desert soils
Essential Elements
trace elements
copper
chlorine
boron
iron
minor essential elements
#
major essential elements
hydrogen
oxygen
carbon
hydroponic solution
to support plant growth
1860
Criteria for Essentiality
element must be acting with the plant
essential
indirectly
directly
element must be effective
cannot live with a substiture
element must be necessary for full life cycle
survival
reproduction
differentiation
growth
Concepts
rocks
mineral nutrition
more complex
nitrogen
magnesium
iron
immediately
potassium
plant metabolism
based on
chemicals in
soil
air
water
sunlight
all organisms
need
Sulfer
Magnesium
Calcium
Phosphorous
Nitrogen
Transport Processes
#
Long-Distance Transport: Xylem
Control of Water Transport by Guard Cells
presence of light
photosynthetic fixing
carbon dioxide
water loss
adventageous
stomatal openings and closings
#
powered by atmosphere
Water Transport Through Xylem
#
embolism
#
can be "healed"
damaging air bubble
cavitation
never conducting again
water column breaking
poikilohydry
occurs:
linches
other vascular plants
Blossfeldia
Selaginella
liverworts
body water changes habitat moisture
pressure potential is a negative number
cohesion-tension hypothesis
water loss
#
transcuticular transpiration
through cuticle
transstomatal transpiration
water diffuses to atmosphere
governed by properties of water
#
Properties of Water
liquid water
#
heavy
lots of energy to move
adhesive
molecules interact with other substances
cohesive
one force acts on all neighboring cells
Long-Distance Transport: Phloem
P-protein
uninjured phloem
callose
too much
P-protein plug
fine network
sinks
sites that receive transported phloem sap
specific mass transfer
mass transfer divided by c/s of phloem
mass transfer
amount of sugars/nutrients transported
by the phloem per hour
STM/CC comlpex
several companion cells
conducting cells
polymer trap mechanism
simple-sugars diffusing
into conducting-cells
active transport
sieve elements
sieve-tube members
angiosperms
sources
early spring
storage sites
taproots
bark
wood
corms
tubers
summer
leaves
minerals
water
pressure flow hypothesis
active transport
membrane-bound molecular pumps
Short-Distance Intercellular Transport
apoplast
molecules moving through wall and spaces
symplast
protoplasm
one continuous mass
Transfer Cells
found:
rapid short-distance transportation
finger-like outgrowths
Motor Cells
closes
freely permeable to potassium
opens
potassium builds up
"joints"
petiole attaches to lamina/stem
Guard Cells
sunrise
open
at night
closed
hydraulic equilibrium
water enters and leaves
at the same time
Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport
Membranes
intracellular transport
vesicles
migrate through the cytoplasm
molecular pumps
like ATP synthase
active transport
aquaporins
protein channels
Selectively permeable
allows only certain substances
Completely impermeable
does not allow anything to pass through
Freely permeable
all solutes diffuse
Diffusion
Osmosis
movement of particles
from high concentration
to low ocncentration
Water Potential
water moves from positive to negative regions
must be considered in pairs
water is always in motion
moves when there is a difference in water
matric potential
water's adhesion to structures
osmotic potential
effect of solutes on water
measurement
bars
in Megapascals
pressure potential
effect of pressure on water
decreased free energy
lowering it
reducing energy
cooling
increased free energy
elevated
put under pressue
heated
Cells and Water Movement
The Water Available in Air
incipient plasmolysis
pulls completely away from cell wall
plamolyzed
protoplast pull away from the cell wall
based on seasons
The Water Available in Water
variety of forms
pure
brackish
salty
fresh
eutrophication
decomposition process
when oxygen becomes used up
lysis
plant cells never burst
animal cells absorbing too much water
Concepts
Isolation Mechanisms
inhibit movement of substances
Long-distance Transport
elevation
photosynthetic cells
Short-distance Transport
necessary
for survival of internal cells
Entire organisms
transport
between roots
fruits
flowers
leaves
nutrients from organ to organ
minerals
carbohydrates
water
Cells
transport
material in and out of themselves
Membranes
transport
material across itself
Enzymes
transport
acetyl groups
protons
electrons
Community Ecology
Predator-Prey Interactions
Apparent Competition
#
facilitation
primary succession
glaciers advancements
no soil or organisms
volcanoes produce lava
sterile
organisms become established on new subsrates
spiny desert shrubs
nurse plants
beavers and ponds
one species helping another without benefit
mutualism
plants and pollinators
when 2 species interact and both benefit
a plant species increasing due to
decrease in competition
Competition Between Species
resource
biotic factors
mycorrjizal fungi
seed dispersers
attention of pollinators
abiotic factors
space
minerals
water
light
a factor that can increase growth rates
mathematical models
2 competeing species can coexist if one
can increase from low density in presence of the other
invasive
2 competing species coexist in an area if they
interfere more with themselves than with others
interspecies competition
interference competition
restriction of resources
braken ferns
exploration competition
resource is actually comsumed
Predator Selection Among Multiple Prey
optimal foraging theory
optimal diet model
four predictions
availability of more profitable prey
some prey items cannot be eaten
eating abundant low energy prey
instead of scarce high-energy prey
needs prey that yields energy per unit of handling time
attempt to understand why herbivores are picky
predators choice of prey
probability prey is successfully eaten
cannot be digested
hard to crack open
decision to attack
low in nutrients
spiky
poisonous
probability of prey being encountered
smaller size
cryptic coloration
rare species
One Predator, One Prey
fixed quota harvesting
like one deer per hunter
fixed effort harvesting
hunting that has a deadline
maximum sustained yiled
to keep a population density at a point
the species is stable
paradox of enrochment
eutrophication
improved conditions for prey
leads to overexploition
prey and predator species become extinct
functional response
prey-dependent
Rosenzeig-MacArthur model
more complex equations
had more factors
Lotka-Volterra model
net rate of change in predators
dP/dt=faNP-qP
net rate of change in prey
dN/dt=rN-aNP
predators'
handling time
feeding rate
1/3 possible paths
predator eats prey
other factors play in
both pop.s remain stable
predator eats prey
prey pop. becomes extinct
predator pop. becomes extinct
predator eats prey
prey pop. decreases
predator pop. decrease
cycle up and down repeatedly
herbivore
plant
Predator P
Prey N
Diversity
growth
diversity of plant storage organs
above ground
edible shoots
seeds
fruits
below ground
rhisomes
taproots
bulbs
feeding methods of herbivores
relative abundance of
ephemerals
perennials
annuals
trees
herbs
absence
presence
checklist
#
#
not necessary
impossible to locate every single prokaryote
a count of the species present
Diversity and Latitude
dating back to 50 billion years ago
near the equator
more species diveristy
#
rare ice cold temperatures
constant warmth
northern areas
Alaska
Siberia
Canada
have less species diversity
Diversity and Scale
species abundance distribution
number of species in a class
species-area relationship
S=cA^z
compare densities of communities
gamma density
beta density
alpha density
relationship between area and a species
larger areas
larger populations
#
more likely to survive disturbances
more variation
geology
topography
soil
higher diversity
scale
size of observed area
Interconnectedness of Species
energy flow web
keystone species
#
kelp "forests"
sea urchins
sea otters
very hard to complete in reality
to trace energy flow through communties
Food Webs
network of numerous interrelationships
Food Chain
direct line of consumption
Concepts
habitat loss
habitat fragmentation
community restoration
rivers
complete life cycle of fish
bears/mountain lions
from Rio Grande River
to Big Bend National Park
keystone species
wolves
in Yellowstone National Park
community
must have boundaries
space
like an entire forest
other communities within
in/on tree branches
in lakes
in streams
within dead animals/plants
preventative factors
at spacial capacity
too wet
high-altitudes
time
disturbances
alter existing comunites
permit new ones to form
hurricanes
erosion
volcanic eruptions
fires
beavers
dams
ponds
pioneers
succession
2 more items...
flood trees
allow more light
2 more items...
existence
a group of species that occur together
at the same time and place
Metapopulations in Patchy Environments
metapopulation
assisted dispersal
captured animals are released to new area
fugitive species
colonizes new patches
migration corridors
Rocky Mountains
New Mexico
Canada
must have
places for
nesting
hiding
water
food
sink habitat
low-quality patch
source habitat
high-quality patch
common model
populations in a patch can go extinct
empty patches will be filled
some patches are habitable, some not
a patch in environment where a species can live
similar to goal of preserving endangered species
local populations connected by
gene pool
migration
Beneficial Interactions Between Species
#
Nonvascular Plants: Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornwarts
#
Division Anthocerotophyta: Hornworts
hornworts
characteristic of algae
alteration of heteromorphic generation
resemble thalloid liverworts
thalloid plants
inconspicuous
small
The Sporophyte Generation
have columella
sporangium
spores
black
brown
golden yellow
green
no seta/sporangium
foot embedded in gametophore tissue
The Gametophyte Generation
symbiosis
young plants
mucilage chambers
ribbon/heart shaped
or disk
Division Hepatophyta: Liverworts
liverworts
#
completely dependent of gametophyte
alternation of heteromorphic generations
The Sporophyte Generation
homosporous
#
sporangium
elators
single, elongated cells
w/ spring shaped walls
The Gametophyte Generation
thallose liverworts
female gametophores
archeogoniophores
male gametophores
antheridiophore
umbrella-shaped outgrowth
air pores
no guard cells
cannot be closed
air chambers
open to atmosphere
thallus
body w/ no:
leaves
stems
roots
flat, ribbon like
leafy liverworts
gametophore similar to moss
Division Bryophyta: Mosses
Metabolism and Ecology
some are resistant to extreme temperatures
some are tolerant of desiccation
some grow in where water is present
lack of conducting tissues
small size
The Sporophyte Generation
homosporous
all mosses
sporophyte
calyptra
layer of cells
peristome teeth
cell breakage
operculum
cap-like lid
embryophytes
gametophyte
zygote
capsule
colmella
apical sporangium
foot
seta
narrow stalk
bulbous tissue
nutrition
supplied by grandparents
megagamete
The Gametophyta Generation
#
Reproduction
archegonia
like a long-necked vase
eggs in megagametangia
anthreidia
sperms produced in microgametangia
Development
protonema
#
filamentous green alga
network of branched cells
Water Transport
Polytrichaceae
rhizoids
only anchor the stem
trichome-like structures
hydroids
leptoids
species that have hydroids
dissolve materials
conduct water
innermost cortex
Morphology
gametophores
grow from apical mertistem
forming dense mounds
leafy stems
parts of gametophytes
mosses
stems
chlorophyllous
parenchymatous
tissue differentiation
slender
thrive in cities
perennial
all around the world
ubiquitous
Classification of Nonvascular Plants
3 divisions
#
Anthocerotophyta
hornworts
Bryophyte
mosses
Hepatophyte
liverworts
Characters of Nonvascular Plants
cannot grow very large
being small is:
selectively advantageous
lifestyle with alterations in:
heteromorphic generations
gametophyte
green moss in haploid phase
photosynthetic
larger in prominant generation
sporophyte
attached to gametophyte
absorbs minerals
temporary, more inconspicuous
exclusively terrestrial
stoma
cuticle
embryophytes
#
no vascular tissue
hornworts
unfamiliar
liverworts
known
mosses
well-known
Concepts
spermatophytes
angiosperms
conifers
cycads
vascular tissue/seeds
vascular cryptogams
ferns
scouring rushes
clubmosses
vascular tissue/ no seeds
nonvascular plants
hornworts
liverworts
mosses
bryophytes
no tissues/seeds
Seed Plants II: Angiosperms
#
Eudicots
Asterid Clade
grouped in 2 small orders
campanulids
lamiids
iridoid compounds
harmful chemicals
stamens alternate with petals
stamens equal petal lobes
sympetalous flowers
morning glory
petunia
periwinkle
sunflowers
most derived large clade
Rosid Clade
subclass
hemlock
parsely
carrots
cellery
dill
maples
dogwood
evening primrose
clover
redbuds
legumes
roses
5 orders make 75%
maples, horse chestnuts, creosote bush
roses, elms, weed
poinsettia
evening primrose
legumes
Rosales
pinnately compounded leaves
Geraniales
Vitales
grape family
wine
from one grape species
table grapes
raisins
grape juice
Basal Eudicots
#
Santalales
sandalwood family
mistletoe
Santalum
Caryophyllales
core Caryophyllales
nucleus cells proliforate
perisperm
extra layer of nutrients
#
water-soluable pigments
betalains
chick weeds
carnations
Russian thistle
beets
spinach
four-o'clocks
bougainvilla
portulaca
iceplants
cacti
hamamelids
plane trees
#
spherical clusters ofhundreds of flowers
of tiny dry fruits
wind-pollinated
Papaveraceae
opium poppy
pain killer
poppies
California poppy
prickly poppy
Ranunculaceae
#
little fusion in flowers
Clematis
windflowers
Buttercups
Monocots
10 orders
Dioscoreales
Dioscorea
reticulate venation
yams
Asparagales
Orchidaceae
largest most diverse family
orchids
germiantion must occur as symbiosis
thousands of tiny seeds in each fruit
epiphytic
zygomorphic flowers
subterranean parasutic
terrestrial
highly-branched trees
Agavaceae
diversified biochemically
Joshua tree
Ruscaceae
dragon tree
ranging from
small, delicate bulbs
to vining epiphytes
corms
rhizomes
bulbs
orchids
carpals fuse together
septa
open areas secrete nectar
septal nectaries
Liliales
Smilacaceae
tough/fiborous vines
Colchicaceae
Colichicum
Gloriosa
largest family
Liliaceae
Fritillaria
Calochortus
Tulipa
Lilium
ornamental plants
previous families are grouped in Asparagales
petalpoid monocots
Alistamatales
Araceae
houseplants
Dieffenbachia
Arisaema
Anthurium
Philodendron
aquatic herbs
sea grasses
completelty sumerged in water
Zosteraceae
Ruppiaceae
Posidoniaceae
Najadaceae
Hydrocharitaceae
Hydrocharis
Najas
Hydrilla
Sagittaria
"broadleaf"
marginal meristem
dieffenbachias
philodendrons
palms
theory of parallel leaves
mutations resulted in basal meristem
strap-shaped leaves
adapted its leaves
lived as aquatic plants
perianth
6 memebers of tepals
gynoocia
fused or slightly together
made of several carpels
believed to be from angiosperms
Commelinoid Monocots
Zingiberales
#
largest family
zingiberaceae
soft, nonleathery herbs
almost all tropical
showy flowers pollinated by
bats
birds
insects
houseplants
birds of paradise
banana
gingers
canna lilies
Poales
rushes
round but hollow
grasses
wind-pollinated
main source of feed
sheep
pigs
cattle
building materials
bamboo
most foods
sugar cane
rice
corn
caryopes
single-seeded dried fruits
"silk" compound style/stigma
"ear" is inflorescent
rye
oats
barley
wheat
segdes
have edges
bromeliads
very adaptable
tropical epiphytes
Typha
cattails
staminate flowers
tiny fruits
spread by subterranean rhizomes
with axillary buds
marshy areas
ponds
#
Poaceae
Arecales
palm fruit
dates
coconuts
leaves
palmate
pinnate
vines
Daemonorops
prostrate trunk
Sabal
occur at shoot Alex
scattered vascular bundles
solitary trunk
Palmea
Basal Angiosperms
#
family Magnoliaceae
magnoloid
peperomias
peppers
avocado
laurels
single germiantion
uniperturate
Magnolia
stamen/carpels of flowers
arranged spirally
plesiomorphies
3 clades
Austrobaileyales
#
woody trees
stamens/carpels similar to Amborella
bisexual flowers
Nymphaeaceae
#
#
pollinated by animals
ordinary conditions would kill them
water lillies
Amborellaceae
#
both kinds of flowers
carpellate
5-6 carpels
loose
staminate
numerous stamens
diecious
mostly trachieds/ no wood
small trees in New Caledonia
Classification of Flowering Plants
early angiosperms
basal angiosperms
Nyphaeales
Austrobaileyales
Amborella
DNA prooves reproductively seperate
were either monocots or eudicots
2 distinct lines
eudicot
flowers occur in sets of 4 or 5
rarely in sets of 3
can be
other highly modified forms
succulant
herbacious
woody
vascular bundles occur in a ring
reticulatae venation in leaves
2 cotyledons on embryos
greater numbers of
species
genres
families
more diverse
monocot
flowers arranged in 3's
3 carpels
3 stamens
3 petals
3 septals
ordinary secondary growth/wood
vascular distributed throughout stem
parallel veins
elongated and straped leaves
irises
lillies
grasses
one cotyedon on each embryo
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (AGP)
Missouri Botanical Garden
www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
semi-informa; collaboration
A Phylogenetic Approach
Michael Simpson
Plants Systematics
W. S Judd et al
An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants
anatomy
biochemistry
DNA
Dr. Arthur Cronquist of New York Botanical Garden
Changing Concepts About Early Angiosperms
angiosperms
transitioned in Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous of Mesozoic Era
earliest fossils
#
Vitiplhylum
Ficolphyllum
Magnoliaephylum
both dicot and moncot
Plantaginopsis
monphyleti
flowers
#
double fertilization
development plasticity
DNA proof
angiosperms
has several clades
homospory
convergent evolution
hamaelid taxa
100 years ago
C. E. Bassey
ranalean flower
magnlia-type flower is relictual
generalized
has all parts
carpels
petals
speals
stamens
arranged spirally
can differentiate flowers by types of ancestor
wind-pollenated trees
plane trees
#
oaks
elms
alders
grouped into subclass Hamameliadae
could not be relictual
wood contains
fibers
vessles
abundant pyrenchyama
most relictual living flowering plants
Upper Cretesous
leaf fossils
asignedd to
Magnolia
Populus
Quercus
based on size and shape
but examination of
venation
cuticle
stomata
Concepts
angiosperm carpels
some groups still changing
orchids
bromeliads
composites
grasses
fusion of carpels
other specialized characters
insect-trapping leaves
tendrils
tubers
corms
bulbs
epiphytism
parasitism
succulence
happened after angiosperms were diversified
pistil
fusion of petals
sympetally & floral zygomorphy
flowers formed
bilaterally symmetrical
vessel elements
basal angiosperms
primitively vesselless
Amborella
secondary vesselless
wood without vessels
double fertilization
2nd sperm cell fuses with
polar nuclei making endosperm nuceus
edges of sporophyll primordia crowd each other
closed carpel
develops in fruit that encloses embryo
gynosperm
unnatural group
all the seed plants except angiosperms
Conifers
Pinaceae
new genera
angiosperms
#
new types of antiherbivore componuds
onion oils
mustard oil
chili peppers
deadly nightshade
poison sumac
poison ivy
evolved to reward pollinators
Magnoliophyta
peak of plant evolution
Angiospermophyta
Energy Metabolism: Respiration
#
Environmental and Internal Factors
Temperature
hot
respiration slows
cold
respiration slows
between 5-25 degrees Celcius
optimum respiration
Lack of Oxygen
demand for oxygen
high in roots
low in leaves
Internal Regulation
active metabolism
respiration=source of ATP
Total Energy Yield of Respiration
4 molecules of ATP used
Glycolysis
#
2 ATP
2 NADH
2 pyruvate
Citric Acid Cycle
#
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
2 NADPH
Fatty Acid
depends on length
if Acetyl CoA enters
Thermogenetic and Photorespiration
0 ATP
Respiratory Quotient
produces 6 oxygen
produces 6 CO2
used to measure amounts of gas
Fermentation of Alcoholic Beverages
Beer
fermentation of grains
Barley
light vs ordinary
Wine
fermented fruit juices
grapes
varieties of one grape
Spirits
ethanol content above 20%
type depends on material
Barley, corn, etc
Warnings
Ethanol is a depressant
moderate consumption
reduces risk of heart disease
DUI
Alcoholism
alcohol is poisonous
death
blindness
#
Types of Respiration
Aerobic
Obligate Areobes
requires oxygen
Facultative Areobes
can live with and without oxygen
Initial step
Glycolysis
substrate-level phosphorylation
Gluconeogenesis
occurs in all organisms
in cytosol of all cells
Citric Acid Cycle aka Kreb's Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
NADH Shuttle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxygen is final electron accepter
Anaerobic
Obligate Anaerobes
requires absence of oxygen
Fungi (yeasts)
Facultative Anaerobes
can live with and without oxygen
Initial step
Glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis
substrate-level phosphorylation
occurs in all organisms
in cytosol of all cells
Heat-gernerating
Thermogenetic Respiration
difference of products= lost as heat
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
important to metabolism in cells
Respiration of Lipids
Beta Oxidation
Photorespiration
Leaves
#
Morphology and Anatomy of Other Leaf Types
Leaves of Conifers
scale-like leaves
Arborviate
Cypresses
Junipers
thick cell walls
thick cuticle
sclerophylls
Sclerophyllous Foliage Leaves
Yucca
Agave
holly
barberry
produce more sugars
Insect Traps
Venus' flytraps
active traps
leaves of sundew
passive traps
Sarracenia
Darlingtonia
Nepenthes
digest insects
obtain nitrogen
Leaves with Kranz Anatomy
no spongy mesophyll
no palisade parenchyma
c4 photosynthesis
Tendrils
capable of sensing touch
grow indefinitely
squash
cucumbers
peas
Spines
no vascular tissue
no mesophyll parenchyma
cacti
modified leaves of axillary buds
Bud Scales
rarely compound
small
primary protection
Succulent
family Aizoaceae
family Portulcaceae
family Crassulaceae
thick and fleshy
favors water concervation
Initiation and Development of Leaves
Monocots
lamina
no sure shape
lilies
#
grasses
broad, expanded
initiated by expansion of shoot apical meristem
hood-like shape
Basal Angiosperms and Eudicots
leaf primordium
grows upward
bulk of midrib
Internal Structure of Leaves
Pertiole
stipules
2 small flaps of tissue at base
palms
rhubarb
water lilies
celery
leaf traces
Vascular Tissue
bundle sheath
bundle sheath extension
elongated fibers
minor veins
releasing water
lateral veins
support leaf blade
midrib
upper pholem
xylem
Mesophyll
spongy medophyll
palisade parenchyma
upper surface
maximum photosynthesis
Epidermis
stomata
trichomes
hairy
provide shade
guard cells
water loss
transpiration
External Structure of Leaves
veins
reticulate venation
Monocots
serrate
lacerate
divided
dentate
entire
no Petiole
Sheathing leaf base
birds-of -paradise
palms
Sessile leaves
Aeonium
Petiole
leaf base
abscision zone
leaf scar
self-shading
leaf blade
compound
multiple parts
Virginia Creeper
Rose
simple
one part
Oak
Poplar
ventral surface
dorsal surface
Concepts
Roots
#
Other Types of Roots and Root Modifications
Roots of Strangler Figs
host tree dies
grow down the host
reaches soil
grows rapidly
epiphytes
Ficus
Haustorial Roots of Parasitic Flowering Plants
Tristerix
inside a cactus
haustoria
attaching to host
angiosperms
Root Nodules and Nitrogen Fixation
genetic mutations
#
legumes
infection thread
#
Rhizobium
atomspheric nitrogen
to usable compounds
Mycorrhizae
endomycorrihzal association
hyphae branch repeatedly
arbuscule
ectomycorrhizal relationship
symbiotic relationship with fungi
Contractile Roots
more contraction
keeping stems at proper depth
cortex cell shape chanegs
Crinum
Gladiolus
Oxalis
Aerial Roots of Orchids
velamen
waterproof barrier
epiphytic
Prop Roots
buttress roots
growth through the air
base grasses
corn
screwpines
palms
Storage Roots
roots are only permanent organ
#
#
perennials
daisies
Phlox
Dature
biennals
celery
carrots
beets
store carbohydrates
to use in winter
during summer
Origin and Development of Lateral Roots
localized cell activity
root primordium
swells
establishing connection
parent root
vascular tissues
forms root cap
breaking endodermis
initiated by the pericycle
Internal Structure of Roots
Mature Portions of the Root
root pressure
powerful absorption of water
endodermis
passage cells
slow to develop
layer of suberin
Zone of Maturation/ Root Hair Zone
#
endodermis
Casparian strips
radial walls
tangential walls
root hairs
plasmodesmata
increasing absorption
minerals
water
Zone of Elongation
behind root apical meristem
cells diferenciate
provascular tissue
primary pholem
primary xylem
in the stem
protophloem
protocylem
epidermis
protoderm
ground tissue
#
cells expand
Root Apical Meristem
quiescent center
resistant to harmful agents
toxic chemicals
radiation
mitotically inactive center
can become active
to make new apical mertistem
no central DNA
mature root tissues
Root Cap
root is growing though
cells closest root meristem
meristematic
develop starch grains
settle to lower side of cell
sense gravity
External Structure of Roots
Structure of Individual Roots
root cap
dictyosomes
secrete mucigel
protects root apical meristem
Zone of Elongation
root hair zone
root hair
extremely transitory
no thick walls
unicellular
extract water from crevices in soil
increase surface area
shoot apical meristem
#
protected by bud scales
root
apical growth
in solid matrix
root tip
growth in length
localized
simple
no leaf scars
no leaves
Organization of Root Systems
fiborus root system
#
functional
adventitious roots
eudicots never produce
transport capacities
increase absorption
radicle
#
largest root in system
highly branched
lateral roots
cassava
sweet potatoes
Concepts
Functions
taproots
not functional
found in:
radishes
beets
carrots
storage of food during winter
producing horomones
gibberllin
cytokinin
absorbing water and minerals
minerals and water
all sides of the root
sunlight
comes from above
anchoring the plant
oriented towards the sun
provides stability
Population Genetics and Evolution
#
Evolution and Origin of Life
chemosynthesis
J. B. S. Haldane
`
absence of oxygen
a lot of time
appropreiate energy sources
the right organic chemimcals
A. Oparin
origin of life from chemical and physical processes
The Presence of Life
physics of living and nonliving world
are aggregates alive?
slow gradual transitions
Oxygen
Ozone layer
terrestrial life
transformed form dangerous pollutant
oxidizing atmosphere
aerobic respiration conditions
allowed the world to rust
bacteria
algae
fungi
kept oxygen levels low
photsynthesis
#
chlorophyll a
Early Metabolism
energy metabolism
oxidative electron transport
photosynthesis
glycolysis
aggregates with synthesizing enzyme
selective advantage
descendants will be more numerous
complete heterotrophs
Aggregation and Organization
genetics
heredity
#
aggregates passed on
natural selection
random
fatty acids formed in water
Formation of Polymers
seaside pools
cold temperatures
intense sunlight
required high concentrations of monomers
Chemicals Produced Chemosynthetically
all essential molecules formed
nitrogen bases
lipids
sugars
amino acids
S. MIller
Conditions on Earth Before the Origin of Life
Time available for the Origin of Life
ocean
#
primordial soup
no limits
due to free oxygen
Energy Sources
electricity
volcanic eruptions
#
rainstorms
lightning
heat
radioactive decay
kinetic energy
gamma rays
intense UV rays
Chemicals present in the Atmosphere
reducing atmosphere
powerful reducing agents
lack of oxygen
first atmosphere was lost in space
second atomsphere
Speciation
#
so much change in a polulation
orchids
maples in US
Convergent Evolution
two distinct unrelated species with same phenotypes
somewhatrelated
euphorbias
modified shoots
leafy trees in Africa
cacti
modified leaves
evolved from leafy trees in America
Divergent Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
founder individuals
genetic drift
gene pool rapidly changing
founder gene
original gene pool
colonization of newly formed oceanic islands
Galapagos
Hawaiian
a new species becomes over short time
a few million years
reproductively isolated
Biological Reproductive Barriers
biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
populations that can no longer interbreed
postzygotic internal isolation barriers
hybrid inviability
hybrid sterility
no pollination, no fertilization
prezygotic isolation mechanisms
two reproductive isolated groups
sympatric speciation
M. cardenalis
hummingbirds
Mimulus lewisii
bumblebees
flowering dates
timing of flowering
frangrance
shape
color
Abiological Reproductive Barriers
mountain ranges
two species that cannot reproduce
allopatric
any physical nonliving feature
that prevents two populations from exchangng genes
one species evolved into a complete new one
Phyletic Speciation
gene flow
animal-mediated pollination
insects
birds
vegetative propagations
crossing over
meiosis
genetic recombination
small, mobile pieces
seed dispersal
long-distance dispersal mechanism
island rafting
stream flow
floods
wind
stay close to parent
pollen transfer
carry one full haploid genome
movement of allele
rapid
species gradually changes
Rates of Evolution
new alleles is made to be more advantageous
human introduction of new plant
very few mutations outweigh counterparts
#
takes a few generations to see new phenotype
Population Genetics
crossing over
sexual production
ratios do not change
G. Weinberg
G. H. Hardy
abundance of different alleles within populations
Multiple Selection Pressures
depends on environmental changes
can improve fitness
producing enough P-protein
ability to reduce nitrogen
dispersement of seeds
insect attacks
cold
need for pollinators
drought
Situations in which Natural Selection Does Not Operate
if event doesn't kill one's competitors
if individuals of population are genetically the same
Factors that Cause the Gene Pool to Change
Factors that are not part of Natural selection
voluntary decision making
planning
intention
purpose
Natural Selection
acts on preexisting alleles
does not cause mutation
#
differential survival among individuals with different phenotypes
progeny must differ in alleles
populations must produce more offspring
survival of the fittest
most significant factor causing gene pool change
Artificial Selection
artificial mutation
to discover new alleles that produce desirable phenotypes
humans purposely alter alleles in gene pool
ornamental plants
selective breeding
animals
plants
Accidents
human construction
avalanche
droughts
floods
hailstorms
volcanic eruptions
meteorite
Mutation
small changes should not be ignored
Concepts
Natural Selection
Alfred Russel Wallace
Charles Darwin
Evolution
extremely slow process
millions of years
thousands of generations
gradual conversion from one species to another
Vascular Plants Without Seeds
#
The Term "Vascular Crytogams"
lack
fruits
flowers
seeds
symplesiomorphies
vasicular crytomgams
#
no seeds
have vasicular tissue
ferns/fern allies
The Megaphyll Line of Evolution
Euphyllophytes
Ferns
Eusporangia and Leptosporangia
leptosporangia
small set of sporangious cells
periclinal division
eusporangium
mulitlayered plate of cells
periclinal divisions
Psilotum and Tmesipteris
tmesipteris
limited to Austrailia
Psilotum
highly simplified ferns
like Rynia/Algaophyton
two species are heterosporous
homosporous
leaves
underside
sori
young are coiled
thick
spongy mesophyll
palisade parenchyma
delicate
leathery
at each node
leaf trace
leaf gap
none are woody
all are perennial and herbacious
found in most habitats
leposporangiate ferns
arrived in Devonian Period
and woody plants
Equisetophytes
monopodial growth
true leaves/roots
lateral branches
main trunk
homosporous
sporangiophore
umbrella-shaped sporangium
15 extant species
all herbs
no secondary growth
horsetails
scouring rushes
one genera
Equisetum
Moniophytes
#
#
ferns
horsetails
Psioltales
lingophytes
euphyllophytes
synapomorphies
30-kilobase in plastid DNA
possess megaphylls
roots have exarch xylem
Origin of Megaphylls (Euphylls)
homoplastic
megaphylls
#
telome theory
last dichotomy
telome
sporophyll
1 more item...
webbing
plantation
enations/microphylls of zosteophyllphytes
leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
Trimerophytes
#
overtopping
unequal branching
Pertica
#
pseudomonopodial branching
single main trunk
Psilophyton
Trimerophytophyta
The Microphyll Line of Evolution
Lycophytes
Extant Genera
Stylites
extreme forms of Isoetes
Isoetes
CAM photosynthesis
heterosporous
quillworts
Selaginella lepidophyll
ligule
small flap of tissue
apomorphic
heterosporous
Lycopodium
extinct
homosporous
Heterospory
convergant evolution of
secondary growth
almost seeds
roots
leaves
necessary precondition of evolution of seeds
lycophyte sporangia
cones/strobill
Morphology
extinct species
too much secondary growth
cambial cells could not function
Stigmaria
Lepidodendron
genre
lycophyte sporophytes
for anchorage
enations are called
microphylls
lycophyll
Baragwanathia
Drepanophycus
Early Vascular Plants
Zosterophyllophytes
#
outgrowths
enations
increased photosynthetic SA
Crenaticaulis
banching was pseudomonopodial
Rebuchia
sporangia occur at the ends
euphyllophytes
flowering plants
conifers
ferns
similar to rhyniophytes
small herbs without secondary growth
named after Zosterophyllum
all extinct
Rhyniophytes
#
Xylem Structure of Early Vascular Plants
two types of xylem organization
protostele
siphonstele
ferns
in seed pants
pith is present
no pith
endarch protostele
metaxylem differentiates on the edge
protoxylem is in the center
exarch protostele
#
protoxylem differentiates on the edge
metaxylem is in the center
fossils that are
Horneophyton
Cooksonia
Algaophyton
Rhynia
alternation of isomorphic generations
homosporous
equal dichotomous branching
branches of equal size and vigor
Concepts
transformation theory
after dibiotic cycle
gametophyte and sporophyte get larger
interpolation hypothesis
nonvascular plants become intermediates
in green algae to vascular plants
zygote germinated mitotically
algae
monobiotic life cycle
one multicellular generation
Coleochaete
all extant plants
dibiotic life cycle
multicellular sporophyte
multicellular gametophyte
Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis
#
Environmental and Internal Factors
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
C4 Metabolism
Photorespiration
Water
Stroma
open
Leaf Structure
Stroma
closed
open
Light
#
Duration of Sunlight
Light Compression Point
Quality of Light
brightness
Quality of Sunlight
pure white
Photosynthesis`
products are nontoxic
Anabolic Metabolism
Synthesis of Polysaccharides
Long-term Storage
Intermediate Storage
Short-term Storage
The Stroma Reactions
3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
The Light-Dependent Reactions
Synthesis of ATP
Cyclic Electron Transport
Noncyclic Electron Transport
ATP Synthase
Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
The Nature of Pigments
Photochemical process
Action Spectrum
Absorption Spectrum
Pigments
Release of light
Fluorescence
Accessory pigments
reflect light
animal skin
fruits
flowers
#
absorb light
human skin
The Nature of Light
Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum
Visible light
Chlorophyll b
Photosystem 2
Photosystem 1
Resonance
Chlorophyll a
Radio waves
Microwaves
Infrared light
Ultraviolet light
X-rays
Gamma rays
Energy Reducing Power
Other Electron Carriers
Plastocyanin
Plastoquiones
Cytochromes
carry electrons
membrane protiens
other minerals
Reducing Power
Redox potential
Oxidation Reactions
Oxidized compounds
Oxygen
increases a positive charge
Reduction Reactions
Reduced compounds
Hydrogen
reduces a positive charge
Energy Carriers
enters chemical reactions
Oxidative Phosphorylation
all parts of the cell
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
all parts of the cell
Photophosphorylation
in Chloroplasts
Pigments can make smaller intermediates
Guanosine Triphosphate
Pigments enter into every reaction necessary
Concepts
Heterotrophs
Flowers
Wood
Roots
uses organic molecules to respire
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotes
all fungi
all parasitic plants
all animals
Photoautotrophs
Chlorophyllous
make their own food
various nitrates, sulfates
Water
Carbon Dioxide
uses direct sunlight as energy
#
few bacteria
all cyanobacteria
all green plants
Entropy
Sunlight causes disorder in the universe
Indirectly
by respiration of Photosynthesis products
Directly
by Photosynthesis
ATP and NADPH
CO2= Carbohydrate
Populations and Ecosystems
#
The Structure of Ecosystems
Trophic levels
pyramid of energy
energy flow
minerals flow too
carbon flow
carbon dioxide is released back into atmosphere
decomposers
#
bacteris
fungi
secondary consumers
carnivores that eat herbivores
primary consumers
herbivores
primary producers
autotrophs
energy and nutrient supply
#
feeding levels
Species Composition
habitat partitioning
creates more niches
climate
stressful
poor soils
mild
rich soils
number and diversity of species that coexist
Temporal Structure
seasons cause change
changes in an ecosystem over time
decades
days
Physiognomic structure
life forms
surviving stress
size and shape of organisms in relation to each other
herbs
shrubs
trees
The Structure of Populations
r- and k- selection
#
k selection
avalanches
suitable for r-species
k-selected species
bristle-cone pines
douglas firs
redwoods
r selection
#
r-selected species
need distubances
man-made
some are predictable
shrubby perennials
annuals
pioneer plants
population growth limited by
carrying capacity
biotic potential
Age Distribution: Demography
rate of population
intrinsic rate of natural increase
carrying capacity
k
biotic potential
r
offspring that make more offspring
generation time
affects rapidity of population growth
time from birth to birth of offspring
uses generations, not years
fundamental aspects
doubling of offspring
when a population responds
to various factors in its habitat
Geographic Distribution
Local Geographic Distribution
uniform distributions
allelochemics
purple salvias
the inhibition of allelopahty
tree plantations
orchards
evenly spaced from neighbors
clumped distributions
organic fertilizer
small or large spaces between plants
random distribution
no predictable value
no obvious pattern to positions
Boundaries of Geographic Range
limiting factor
#
pollinators
heat
water
applies to interactions in habitat
carbon dioxide
light
sole factor that determines the health of the plant
Plants in Relationships to Their Habitats
habitat
operational habitat
redwoods in California
understory shrubs
play a big part
in seed germination
all components with known effects or not
migration routes
plants cannot migrate
but parts of a plant can
vegetable propagules
seeds
fruits
pollen
spores
summer
winter
set of conditions where an organism completes life cycle
Biotic Components of the Habitat
Organisms Other Than Plants
pathogenic
may also be mutualistic
mycorrhizal fungus
kills the plants by disease
predation
herbivores
grazing
cattle
sheep
browsing
giraffe
deer
one benefits, one is harmed
commensal relationships
birds nest in trees
one is benefitted, the other is unaffected
interralationships
frugivores
ants and Acacias
#
prokaryotes
fungi
animals
Other Plant Species
ecotypes
transplant experiments
common garden
determines stressers
plants move from one site to another
a subspecies specialized in response
to particular ecosystem factors
niche
set of conditions
that a species is particularly adapted for
possibility for interaction
decomposers
prokaryotes
protists
fungi
parasitism
mistletoes
killing of the host
predation
insectivorous plants
venus fly trap
killing of prey
competition
competitive exclusion
a species overlaps its tolerance range
less adapted species are kicked out
limited supply of resources
seed dispersers
pollinators
water
soil
light
disadvantages to either individuals
mutualism
#
beneficial for both individuals
The Plant Itself
glaciers
moraines
firewood
willows
Dryas
root nodules
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
leave poor soil
low light
mature trees
oaks
beech
create perfect environment
for their seedlings
habitat modification
neutral
deterimental
beneficial
Abiotic Components of the Habitat
Disturbance
#
man-made
habitat destruction
hunting
herbicides
insecticides
floods
snow avalanches
landslides
fires
plants become
grasses
saw grasses
in Florida
prairie grasses
in Midwest
and seeds evolve
jack pines
lodgepole pines
fire resistant
lightening storms
layers of thick debris
common in dry environments
Latitude and Altitude
altitude
high mountain tops
not shielded from
water vapor
carbon dioxide
oxygen
ozone layer
poor soil conditions
latitude
little soil regions
#
Canada
Alaska
longer days/nights
#
effects photoperiod
Soil Factors
horizon
essential elements are recycled
repeatedly
C horizon
bottommost layer
rock fragments
parent rock
B horizon
middle layer
zone of deposition
A horizon
uppermost layer
zone of leaching
pioneers
angiosperms
root nodules
lichens
cynobacteria
nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes
must tolerate severe condition
first plants to invade new soil
Climate
tolerance range
the range between extreme highs and lows
winter lows
under -40F
summer highs
over 100F
moisture
amount of precipitation
can change the ecosystem
can damage
animals
flowers
buds
leaves
occurs as
hail
snow
rain
growing season
must be adequate for
reproduction
development
growth
photosynthesis
determined by last, severe killing frost
fall
spring
critically important to all organisms
winds
relative humidity
rainfall
temperature
rain forests
winter dormancy period
being able to bloom
vernalized
freezing winters
adequate rain
washingotn
oregon
california
tropics
frost-free zones
extremes
highest summer temps
lowest winter temps
Concepts
fire in West Texas
fire consumed all kinds of plants
native plants
yuccus
agaves
cacti
trees
buffalos could have eaten the fuel
ecosystems
diversity
metabolism
structure
additional levels of interaction and complexity
the physical, nonliving environment
community
multiple populations in an area
populations
rarely stable
fires
pathogenic fungus'
sexual reproduction
self-sterile plants
individuals of the same species
Plants that flower
Vascular cambium components
link of cycads to progymnosperms
aids in pollination
how ATP is made
intense reflection can damage retinas
needed for cellular processes
connection to shape
link between trees
physical aspects impact a plants ability to flower
fossils are best preserved in the right soils
depends on optimum conditions
like the evolution of seed
vascular tissue present
most shrubs can produce flowers
fruits produce seeds for reproduction
water movement
water reflects sunlight incresing the chances of sunburn
common in humans too
water loss can damage cells if significant enough
determines genes of offspring
effects generations
present in animals too
effects everything
