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MMCourse (Photosynthesis # (Photoautotrophs # (Examples of…

- - - - Endergonic reactions driven by ATP
      - Requiring new bonding orbitals filled by electrons carried to the reaction by NADPH
        
        Before photosynthesis can happen ATP and NADPH must be formed
        
        In highly endergonic reactions driven by light energy
  - - - Cytochromes
        
        intrinsic membrane proteins; they are an integral part of the chloroplast's thylakoid membranes and cannot be removed without destroying the membrane.
        
        small proteins that contain a cofactor, heme, which holds an iron atom
      - Plastoquinones
        
        Loosely associated with chloroplast membranes; it can move a short distance along the surface, but it does not travel far.
        
        transport electrons over short distances within a membrane.
      - Plastocyanin
        
        small protein that carries electrons on a metal atom - in this case copper.
    - - A process that converts light energy to chemical energy
        
        ADP can be phosphorylated into ATP three ways
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation
        
        Last stage of respiration; ADP is phosphorylated to ATP
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        Occurs only in chloroplasts in light
        
        INVOLVES:
        
        Light energy in photosynthesis
        
        Certain tissues can't perform this due to lack of pigments and organelles
        
        3 more items...
        
        Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        Occur in all parts of the plant at all times
        
        Respiring high energy compounds. Compounds with high-energy phosphate groups are produced, these compounds force their phosphate onto ADP making ATP.
  - - - Chlorophyllous leaves and stems
    - - USING:
        
        Carbon Dioxide
        
        Other Minerals
        
        Water
        
        Sulfates
        
        Various Nitrates
    - - INCLUDES:
        
        All cyanobacteria
        
        The few bacteria capable of photosynthesis
        
        All green plants
  - - - Roots
      - Flowers
      - Wood
        
        Survive on carbohydrates imported through phloem
    - - Can use part for construction material instead of fuel
        
        Amino Acids
        
        Sugars
        
        Fatty Acids
        
        Can be built into the organisms polymers
        
        The rest is respired for energy
    - - INCLUDES:
        
        Nonphotosynthetic prokaryotes
        
        All completely parasitic plants
        
        All fungi
        
        All animals
- - - - The current earliest known progymnosperm species with heterospory is Chauleria from the Middle Devonian Period.
    - - Trees up to 8.4 m tall with abundant wood and secondary phloem.
      - A more derived progymnosperm was Archaeopteris in the order Archaeopteridales.
    - - They all had a vascular cambium and secondary growth, but the primary xylem of their stems was a protostele like that of rhyniophytes and trimerophytes.
      - They varied in size from shrub to large trees
      - Order Aneurophytales contains the more relictual progymnosperms.
        
        Such as:
        
        Eospermatopteris
        
        Tetraxylopteris
        
        Aneurophyton
        
        Proteokalon
        
        Protopteridium
- - - - Fusion of petals into one structure
    - - Fusion of the carpets into a single structure
    - - Flowers that are bilaterally symmetrical, not radially symmetrical
  - - - Contains plants such as
        
        Morning glory
        
        Sunflower
        
        Periwinkle
        
        Petunia
    - - Several small orders and two large groups
      - Consists of many families
    - - Water lilies
  - - - Commelinales
      - Arecales
      - Zingiberales
      - Poales
  - - - Eudicots
      - Monocots
  - - - Such a flower is generalized
        
        Has all parts
        
        All arranged spirally
        
        Petals
        
        Sepals
        
        Carpels
        
        Stamens
      - In which a magnolia type flower was thought to be relictual.
      - Hypothesis developed by C. E. Bessey approximately 100 years ago
- - - - Deleterious mutations are not eliminated quickly by natural selection, and the extra copies of a gene may rapidly become nonfunctional' as long as the genes are still so similar to the wild-type allele that they can be recognized as having originated as duplicates of it, they are called paralogs.
      - A change in chromosome number per nucleus in plants can also come about by nondisjunction.
      - All plants with more than two sets of chromosomes are polyploid.
        
        All plants with an even ploidy level can undergo meiosis and are fertile' all odd ploidy levels are sterile like triploids.
    - - The presence of a lethal allele can be difficult to detect if its effect occurs early.
      - The phenotypic result of a mutation can vary in severity from almost undetectable to lethal; that is, its presence can kill the plant.
    - - Plastid inheritance is also responsible for certain types of variegation in plants, the presence of spots or sectors that are white, red, or orange on a plant that is otherwise green.
      - When an achlorophyllous plant is crossed with a green, chlorophyll-bearing plant, the outcome depends on which plant is the pollen parent and which is the ovule parent.
      - Maternal inheritance, uniparental inheritance, is when the zygote obtains all its plastid and mitochondrion genomes from the maternal parent.
      - In the crosses described, the alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to the progeny, a situation called biparental inheritance.
  - - - If two genes occur close together on a chromosome, they usually do not undergo independent assortment during meiosis 1; instead, the two genes are said to be linked.
    - - Independent assortment can also occur if two genes are located far apart on the same chromosome such that crossing-over occurs between them during prophase 1, after homologous chromosomes have paired and a synaptonemal complex is formed.
    - - In a dihybrid cross involving independent assortment of two heterozygous genes, each gene showing complete dominance, a characteristic phenotype ratio occurs, just as is true of the 3:1 ratio in a monohybrid cross.
      - If two genes are on separate chromosomes, the alleles of one gene move independently of the alleles of the other gene; this is called independent assortment.
  - - - Multiple alleles is when the gene may exist in many forms.
      - A gene may have many alleles, not just two as in the examples discussed so far.
    - - The genotype can be revealed by a test cross, a cross involving the plant in question and one that is homozygous recessive for the trait being studied.
      - When traits with incomplete dominance are studied, the genotype of any plant is easy to determine from its phenotype.
      - We can only see an organism's phenotype, to discover its genotype, we must perform crosses, and the test cross is the most useful.
    - - The trait that is like that of the parent with two effective alleles is said to be dominant over the other version of the trait, which is recessive.
      - The situation in which only half as much product of an enzyme, such as the red pigment discussed above, is produced in a heterozygote is not universal.
    - - A punnett square can be set up in which all types of one gamete, say, the egg, are arranged along the tope of the square, and all types of the other gamete are arranged on the left side.
      - When a plant's own pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs, the cross is a selfing.
        
        A plant can also be selfed by being crossed with another plant with exactly the same genotype.
    - - Heterozygous is two different alleles for the gene.
      - Each parent is said to be homozygous because each has two identical alleles for this gene.
      - The parents are called the parental generation; the offspring of their crossbreeding are the F, or first filial generation, and if these interbreed, their offspring are the F2 generation.
      - In a monohybrid cross only a single character is analyzed and studied; the inheritance of other traits is not considered.
  - - - The repair rate must be neither too efficient nor too ineffective.
      - Most mutations are deleterious and occur frequently enough to be a significant problem, it is selectively advantageous for organisms to have DNA repair mechanisms that recognize and remove mutations.
    - - A somatic mutation might not ever result in an altered phenotype.
      - Mutations can occur at any time in any cell, but if they happen in cells that never lead to sex cells, they are called somatic cells.
    - - Mutations in promoter regions can completely inactivate a gene or cause it to be active in the wrong time or place.
      - Statistically mutations are almost always harmful.
      - The effect and significance of a mutation depend on its nature, its position, and its extent.
    - - A transposon is like an insertion sequence except that it may be much longer and carries genes that code for proteins not associated with transposition.
      - Insertion sequences are only a few thousand base pairs long and contain the genes that code for the enzymes actually involved in cutting the insertion sequence out and splicing it into DNA somewhere else.
      - Deletion can be caused in several ways
        
        One method is due to short regions of a self-complimentary sequence.
      - Several important chemicals are:
        
        Ultraviolet light
        
        Radiation from radioactive substances
        
        X-Rays
      - A mutagen is something that causes mutations.
- - - - Cells dividing and growing
      - Region just below apical meristem
    - - Primary growth
        
        The growth and tissue formation that results from apical meristem activity
      - Primary tissues
        
        The tissues produced by apical meristems
      - Cells divide by mitosis and cytokinesis, producing progenitor cells for the rest of the stem
      - Stems grow longer by creating new cells at their tips
  - - - Two types
        
        Phloem
        
        Two types of conducting cells
        
        Sieve tube members
        
        Sieve cells
        
        Sieve element
        
        Distributes sugars and minerals
        
        Xylem
        
        Two types of conducting cells
        
        Tracheids
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Tracheary element
        
        Conducts water and minerals
    - - Composed of photosynthetic parenchyma and sometimes collenchyma # # # #
      - Interior to the epidermis
    - - All interchange of material between a plant and its environment occurs by means of its epidermis
      - A single layer of Parenchyma cells
      - The outermost surface of a herbaceous stem
  - - - Terminal Bud
        
        At the extreme tip of each stem
      - Leaf Axil
        
        Axillary Bud
        
        The bud is covered by small, corky, waxy bud scales that protect the delicate organs inside
        
        A miniature shoot with a dormant apical meristem and several young leaves.
      - Phyllotaxy
        
        The arrangement of leaves on the stem
      - Nodes
        
        Internodes
        
        The region between nodes
        
        Leaves are attached here
  - - - Two types of Cells
        
        Mechanical Sclerenchyma
        
        Subdivided into long fibers and short scleroids, both of which have elastic secondary walls
        
        Conducting Sclerenchyma
        
        Long and narrow tracheid's with tapered ends, containing no perferations
      - Has both a primary wall and a thick secondary wall that is almost always lignified
        
        These walls are elastic. They can be deformed, but return to their original size and shape when pressure is released
    - - Examples
        
        Chlorenchyma Cells
        
        Parenchyma cells that mediate short-distance transport of material by means of a large, extensive plasma membrane capable of holding numerous molecular pumps
        
        Transfer Cells
        
        Parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis
        
        Glandular Cells
        
        Parenchyma cells that secrete nectar, fragrances, mucilage, resins, and oils
      - Active metabolically and usually remain alive after they mature
      - Seeds
      - Fruits
      - Soft Leaves
      - Petals
      - Have only primary walls that remain thin
        
        Parenchyma Tissue is a mass of parenchyma cells
        
        Most common type of cell and tissue, consulting all soft parts of a plant
    - - Have a primary wall that remains thin in some areas but becomes thickened in other areas, most often in the corners
  - - - Many live and grow for years
        
        Lilies
        
        Irises
      - Plant that never becomes woody and covered with bark, often lives less than a year.
        
        Wheat
        
        Corn
        
        Beans
        
        Petunias
        
        Snapdragons
    - - Secondary Plant Body
    - - Primary Plant Body
  - - - broadleaf plants
        
        Roses
        
        Maples
        
        Asters
    - - Grasses
      - Bromeliads
      - Lilies
      - Philodendrons
      - Cattails
      - Palms
    - - Laurels
      - Waterlilies
      - Magnolias
    - - approximately 297,000 species
- - - - Are initiated by the expansion of some shoot apical meristemce cells to form a leaf primordium
    - - Leaf Primordium
        
        Protrusion forming from protoderm
  - - - Each attached by petiolule to a rachis
  - - - In plants with habitats poor of nitrates and ammonia
      - Has evolved in several families
    - - Have prominent bundle sheaths composed of large chlorophyllous cells
      - Lack palisade parenchyma and spongy mesophyll
      - C4 photosynthesis
    - - Another modified leaf in many plants
        
        Peas
        
        Squash
        
        Cucumbers
    - - Cactus spines are modified leaves of axillary buds
      - Cacti have two types of leaves
        
        The green body has microscopic green leaves and the cluster of spines are their axillary buds
    - - Small and rarely compound
        
        primarily protection
      - In perennial plants dormant shoot apical meristems are protected from low temperatures by bud scales
      - Most common modification of leaves
    - - Produces more sugars by photosynthesis than used in construction of leaves
        
        Plant makes schlerophyllous leaves because of hardness
    - - Lack of air spaces, leading to little evaporation (water loss) through stomata
      - Permits plants to survive in desert habitats
    - - Leaves are mostly perennial, remaining on the stem for many years
      - Simple
  - - - Bundle sheath
        
        Many fibers arranged as a sheath
      - Midrib
        
        Lateral veins emerge
        
        Branch into minor veins
        
        Usually in eudicots
    - - Mesophyll
        
        In the lower portion of the leaf is the spongy mesophyll
        
        Open, loose aerenchyma that permits carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly away from stomata into all parts of leaf interior
        
        Palisade Parenchyma
        
        Main photosynthetic tissue of most plants
        
        The ground tissues interior to the leaf epidermis
      - Must allow entry of carbon dioxide
      - Water lost through the epidermis is known as traspiration
    - - In angiosperm and eudicots they occur in netted patterns
        
        Reticulate Venation
      - Collect sugars produced by photosynthesis and carry them for use or storage elsewhere
      - Distribute water from the stem
      - Bundles of vascular tissue
  - - - Its cells are involved in cutting off the leaf when its useful life is over
      - Perpendicular to the petiole
    - - Self-shading sometimes with no petiole
    - - Leaf traces
      - Holds the blade out into the light
      - Stalk
    - - Usually smooth
      - Upper side of the leaf blade
    - - Large, veins protrude like backbones
      - Leaf blades lower side
    - - Lamina
      - Flat, light-harvesting portion of photosynthesis
- - - - The increase in width and addition of adventitious roots in palms is known as establishment growth, a form of primary growth.
      - Palm trees are unusual in that their trunks do not taper at the tips like eudicots or conifer trees.
        
        The palm trunk is all primary tissue consisting of vascular bundles distributed throughout ground tissue, each containing only primary xylem and primary phloem, which all derived from the shoot apical meristem.
    - - Columns of some of the parenchyma cells undergo rapid division and produce narrow cells that differentiate into secondary vascular bundles in monocots.
      - Included Phloem
        
        Secondary phloem located between two bands of xylem
      - When alternative cambia produce secondary bodies that differ from the common type
  - - - In other species the first cork cambium forms only when that region is several years old.
        
        Delayed formation of bark is common in plants that depend on cortex chlorenchyma for much of their photosynthesis
        
        Cacti
      - In some species the first cork cambium arises before a twig or root is even 1 year old.
        
        On stems this is often detectable as the surface color changes from green to tan.
    - - Diffusion pathways for oxygen where intercellular spaces penetrate the cork layer.
        
        These regions of aerenchymatous cork are lenticels
    - - All tissues outside the innermost cork cambium are the outer bark. All secondary phloem between the vascular cambium and the inner most cork cambium is the inner bark.
      - In a few species the cork cambium may produce a cell or two to the inside that mature into a layer of parenchyma called phelloderm.
        
        Known as periderm
      - After each division the inner cell is almost always cork cambium, and the outer cell differentiates into a cork cell (phellem cell).
      - Differs a lot from vascular cambium in both structure and morphogenic activity.
        
        All of its cells are cuboidal, like ray initials
      - In secondary phloem the formation of the interfascicular vascular cambium results in a new cambium, known as the cork cambium #
      - Also called the phellogen
  - - - Conifers form reaction wood located on the underside of the branch and it's known as compression wood.
      - Wood produced to combat stress that would result in drooping of branches
    - - The different regions exist because vessels and tracheid's do not function forever in water conduction
      - The dark wood in the center of a log is heartwood
      - The lighter, moister outer region is sapwood
    - - Ring porous
        
        Red Oak
        
        Honey Locust
        
        Sassafras
      - Diffuse porous
        
        American Holly
        
        Aspen
        
        Yellow Birch
        
        Sugar Maple
      - Annual rings classified by the changing conditions of the trees during specific seasons
        
        Early wood is developed in spring with wide vessels, and late wood is produced in summer with smaller vessels.
    - - Radial system develops from the ray initials # #
      - Axial system is derived from the fusiform intitials # #
      - Only real differences between primary and secondary xylem are the origin and arrangement of cells
      - Wood may contain:
        
        Parenchyma
        
        Tracheids
        
        Sclereids
        
        Fibers
        
        Vessel Elements
      - Secondary xylem contains all the types of cells that occur in primary xylem but no new ones.
      - All cells formed to the interior of the vascular cambium develop into secondary xylem, or wood.
  - - - Ray initial cells are grouped together in short vertical rows # # #
      - Uniseriate
        
        One cell wide
      - Multiseriate
        
        Many cells wide
      - Biseriate
        
        Two cell wide
    - - Also undergo periclinal cell division
        
        One of the daughter cells remains a cambial ray initial and the other differentiating into either xylem parenchyma or phloem parenchyma depending on location.
      - Similar to fusiform initials except they are short and more or less cuboidal
    - - Anticlinal walls are perpendicular to the cambium's surface
        
        Vascular cells must occasionally divide longitudinally
      - Two elongate cells are produced, one remains fusiform initial, but the other differentiates into a cell of secondary xylem or secondary phloem.
        
        If the inner daughter cell remains a cambium cell, the outer cell develops into secondary phloem.
        
        Continuous and wood never forms on the exterior and bark never forms interior.
        
        If the outer daughter cell remains a cambium cell, the inner cell develops into secondary xylem.
      - Periclinal wall is a wall parallel to the circumference of the cambium
        
        Fusiform initials undergo longitudinal cell division
      - Usual length is 140 to 160 micrometers in dicots and 700 to 8,700 in conifers
      - Long, tapered cells
    - - The cells located between the metaxylem and metaphloem of a vascular bundle never undergo cell cycle arrest.
        
        Some mature parenchyma cells between vascular bundles come out of cell cycle arrest and resume mitosis, forming an interfascicular cambium that connects on each side with the fascicular cambia.
        
        The terms "fascicular" and "interfascicular" are only used while the cambium is young.
        
        They continue to divide instead of maturing and they constitute the fascicular cambium.
      - The vascular cambium is one of the meristems that produce the secondary plant body.
- - - - A network of numerous interrelationships
    - - The direct line of consumption
  - - - When organisms become established on newly created substrates
    - - When one organism helps another without receiving any benefit
    - - Also called mutualistic relationship
      - When two organisms interact such that both benefit
  - - - Apparent competition
        
        Plants aren't actually competing for an using a resource
    - - Resource-any factor or substance that can lead to increased growth rates as its availability is increased and that is consumed by an organism.
      - Interference competition
        
        One organism restricts another organism's access to resources eve though the first might not be using it.
      - Exploitation competition
        
        Resource competition occurs when the organisms actually consume a shared resource, making it less available for others.
    - - Optimal diet model
        
        Makes four predictions:
        
        4.The probability that a particular plant will be eaten depends partially on the abundance of other plants that are easy to handle and have higher value.
        
        1.Predators should prefer whichever prey yields the most energy per unit of handling time.
        
        3.Some prey items will always be eaten if they are encountered, others will never be eaten even if easy to obtain.
        
        2.If the high-yield prey become sufficiently scarce, then the predator would be more successful by broadening its diet to include prey that are lower in energy if they are abundant and easy to handle.
        
        Product of optimal foraging theory #
      - Optimal foraging theory
        
        examine the interactions between these factors in an attempt to understand why herbivores eat the plants they do while ignoring others.
      - Communities have multiple plant species that are prey to herbivorous predators.
    - - Fixed quota harvesting-fisherman or hunters are allowed to harvest a particular amount.
      - Fixed effort-harvesting populations health is determined by the amount of fish or deer.
      - Maximum sustained yield-when the species is stable.
      - Paradox of enrichment
        
        Improving conditions for the prey may lead the predator to overexploit; loss of both species.
      - Zero growth isocline
        
        The line indication population growth stability.
      - Prey-dependent
        
        Predators functional response is dependent on prey density.
      - Functional response
        
        Predators feeding rates and its handling time.
  - - - Some communities have thousands:
        
        Rain Forests
      - Some communities have only a few species:
        
        Sand Dunes
        
        Salt Flats
    - - Similar sized areas near equator:
        
        Southeast Asia
        
        Central Africa
        
        More species (higher density)
        
        Amazon rain forest
      - varies with latitude # #
      - Far northern areas in:
        
        Alaska
        
        Siberia
        
        Fewer species (lower diversity)
        
        Canada
    - - Scale matters #
      - Species-area Relationship
        
        S+cA^z
        
        The relationship between area and species richness
      - Larger areas will have more variation in:
        
        Geology
        
        Topography
        
        Types of Soil
      - Larger areas are more diverse
- - - - Numerous mechanisms have evolved that control stomatal opening and closing.
        
        Abscisic acid immediately causes guard cells to close the stomatal pore even in blue light and low concentrations of carbon dioxide
        
        If the leaf has an adequate moisture content, light and carbon dioxide are the normal controlling factors.
      - Bulk water movement through xylem is influenced and powered primarily by water loss to the atmosphere
    - - Having a body water content that changes with habitat moisture is called poikilohydry
        
        Lichens are arguably the best examples
        
        And a few other vascular plants
        
        The tiny cactus Blossfeldia
        
        Also occurs in in some liverworts
        
        Also in some species of selaginella
        
        Many desert-adapted mosses that have no capacity to store water are able to change with their habitat
      - Water lost through the cuticle is known as transcuticular transpiration
      - The cohesion-tension hypothesis is the most widely accepted model of the process.
        
        When stomatal pores are open, they allow water loss
        
        This water loss is called transstomatal transpiration.
    - - Water also adheres firmly to soil particles.
      - Another property of water is that it is heavy, and lifting it tot the top of a tree requires a great deal of energy.
      - Another property of water is that its molecules interact with many other substances, it is adhesive.
      - Water molecules interact strongly with other water molecules, behaving as if weakly bound together, when frozen the molecules are strongly bound to each other.
        
        Because of this liquid water is said to be cohesive, and any force acting on one molecule acts on all neighboring ones as well.
  - - - Within uninjured phloem there is another polymer called callose.
      - P-protein
        
        Found as a fine network adjacent to the plasma membrane inner surface of uninjured sieve elements.
        
        When it is carried to a sieve are or sieve plate, the P-protein mass is too large to pass through and forms a P-protein plug.
        
        It is present in all eudicots and many but not all monocots, conifers do not produce P-protein.
    - - In other species, phloem is loaded by the polymer trap mechanism:
        
        Conducting-cell plasma membranes are permeable to monosaccharides and disaccharides but not to polysaccharides.
    - - Membrane-bound molecular pumps and active transport are postulated to be the important driving forces.
  - - - Transfer cells are found in areas where rapid short-distance transport is expected to occur:
        
        In areas that pass nutrients to embryos
        
        In glands that secrete salt
        
        In regions where sugar is loaded into or out of phloem
      - In certain transfer cells, the walls are smooth on the outer surface but have numerous finger-like and ridge-like outgrowths on the inner surface.
    - - Are located along the midrib, when they are shrunken pressure in other midrib cells causes the two halves of the blade to be appressed, the trap is closed.
      - Can either accumulate or expel potassium and thus adjust their water potential and turgidity
    - - The opening and closing of stomatal pores are based on short-distance intercellular transport.
        
        At night, guard cells are somewhat shrunken and have little internal pressure, except in CAM plants.
  - - - Adhesion only decreases water's free energy. Matric potential is always negative.
      - Soil Particles
      - Membranes
      - Cell Walls
    - - Megapascals (MPa) or bars, is the units used to measure pressure
    - - In botany it is called water potential
        
        Pronounced "Sigh"
    - - If the cell has not reached equilibrium at the point of incipient plasmolysis and continues to lose water the protoplast will pull away from the wall and shrink.
        
        The cell has become plasmolyzed.
      - Incipient Plasmolysis is the point at which the protoplast has lost just enough water to pull slightly away from the wall.
      - Lysis
        
        Animal cells that burst if placed in pure water.
        
        Plant cells can never burst, the cell grows rather than bursts.
  - - - Freely Permeable
        
        Allow all solutes to diffuse through them and have little biological significance.
      - Differentially or Selectively Permeable
        
        Allow only certain substances to pass though
        
        All lipid/protein cell membranes are differentially permeable.
      - Completely Impermeable
        
        Do not allow anything to pass through and occur as isolation barriers
    - - Diffusion through a membrane is known as osmosis
- - - - The upper cell grows by cell division and expansion into a simple apical sporangium called the capsule.
    - - Reproduction
        
        The gametophore at some point produces gametangia.
      - Development
        
        Growth of the gametophore begins when a spore germinates and sends out a long, slender chlorophyllous cell.
        
        This cell undergoes mitosis and produces a branched system of similar cells, the entire network is called a protonema.
      - Water Transport
        
        At the base of the stem are rhizoids
        
        Small, unicellulartrichome-like structures that penetrate the surface of the substrate.
        
        Species that have hydroids typically have leptoids cells
        
        Cells that resemble sieve cells
        
        The innermost cortex of the family Polytrichaceae cells are called hydroids
        
        They are elongated cells that lose their cytoplasm when mature.
        
        They conduct water and dissolved minerals.
      - Morphology
        
        All moss stems have leaves, but they are not homologous.
        
        Scouleria gametophores grow as ribbons up to 15 cm long.
        
        In other species, particularly those of cool wet areas, the plants are more open and loose.
        
        The leafy stems, gametophores, of many moss plants grow close together, forming dense mounds.
      - Mosses are ambiguous occurring in all parts of the world and in almost every environment.
  - - - Division Bryophyta
        
        Previously all grouped together in Bryophyta
        
        Hornworts
        
        Anthocertae
        
        Mosses
        
        Musci
        
        Liverworts
        
        Hepaticae
    - - Division Anthocerotophyta
    - - Division Hepatophyta
  - - - They have multicellular paranoia and gametangia.
- - - - Ex. Sauromatum guttatum
        
        Voodoo Lily
        
        produce heat more efficiently than humans
        
        alternative electron carriers
        
        don't pump protons during electron transport
      - Ex. Symplocarpus foetidus
        
        Skunk Cabbage
  - - - 2 Pyruvate, ATP, NADH, with oxygen present
        
        oxygen is abundant
        
        doesn't require energy
        
        product is water
        
        nontoxic and beneficial : :smiley:
      - Citric acid cycle, Krebs cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle
        
        these names show different facts about cycle
        
        several intermediates are tricarboxylic acids
        
        each has three carboxyl groups
        
        pioneering work done mostly by Han Krebs
        
        one intermediate is citrate
        
        the anion of citric acid
        
        Krebs Cycle
        
        breaks down pyruvate to ATP
        
        transported from cytosol to mitochondrial matrix
        
        it is oxidized and decarboxylated
        
        repeated 2x
        
        Electron Transport Chain
        
        occurs in mitochondrial inner membrane
        
        produces 30+ ATP
        
        carriers that react with oxygen and NADH placed in crista membranes
        
        NADH cannot pass inner membrane
        
        chemical reactio(shuttles) carry reducing power across
        
        Malate-aspartate shuttle
        
        2 more items...
        
        glycerol phosphate shutle
        
        only on matrix side
    - - Obligate/Strict Aerobes
  - - - the reduction of NAD+ to NADH during glycolysis is a problem
        
        too much NADH is made during glycolysis
        
        electron dump = pyruvate
        
        in plants and fungi pyruvate is converted to acetaldehyde
        
        acetaldehyde reacts with NADH and forms ethanol
        
        NADH reacts with pyruvate forming lactate
        
        anion of lactic acid
        
        both are toxic :forbidden:
        
        1 more item...
        
        when all NAD+ is consumed, it can result in death
      - 4 ATP's, 2 consumed, leaving 2 ATP's
        
        ATP is used for other metabolic reactions
        
        ion transport
        
        microtubule assembly
        
        nucleic acid replication
        
        protein synthesis
    - - Certain bacteria are killed by oxygen
        
        Obligate anaerobes
      - Fermentation
- - - - When young, plants of strangler figs grow as epiphytes perched on a branch of a host tree.
    - - Roots of parasitic plants have become highly modified and are known as haustoria.
    - - Lack of nitrogenous compounds in the soil is a major growth-limiting factor. When some prokaryotes that can take in N2 die and decompose the roots are able to pick up and use the nitrogen in the soil.
    - - Roots of most species of seed plants have a symbiotic relationship with soil fungi in which both organisms benefit.
    - - May be the means by which the shoot becomes anchored in the soil.
    - - The stem of a monocot can become wider, with more vascular bundles, if it can produce adventitious roots that extend to the soil.
    - - Many orchids are epiphytic, living attached to the branches of trees. They are dangle free in the air. The orchids provide water in drought conditions.
    - - Roots frequently provide long-term storage for carbohydrates that accumulate during summer photosynthesis.
  - - - As it pushes outward, the new lateral root destroys cells of the cortex and epidermis that lie in its path, ultimately breaking the endodermis.
  - - - The structure and growth
        
        It's estimated that only 4 or 5 days pass form cell formation in the root cap to its sloughing off.
        
        As cells are pushed closer to the edge of the cap their structure and metabolism change dramatically.
        
        Endoplasmic reticulum becomes less conspicuous starch grains are digested, and the cell's dictyosomes secrete copious amounts of mucigel by exocytosis.
        
        As cells are pushed forward they develop dense starch grains and their endoplasmic reticulum becomes displaced to the forward end of the cell.
    - - If part of the root apical meristem is damaged, quiescent center cells become active and form a new apical meristem.
        
        After the new meristem is established, its central cells become inactive, forming a new quiescent center.
      - The root is more orderly than the shoot because it experiences no disruptions because of leaf primordia, leaf traces, or axillary buds.
      - Regular files of cells can be seen to originate in the meristem and extend into the regions of mature root tissues.
    - - The mature endodermis prevents root pressure which would force water to leak out into the cortex of older parts of the root instead of moving up into the shoot.
        
        If water leaked into the stem cortex and filled intercellular spaces, oxygen diffusion would be prevented and the tissues would suffocate.
      - The result of continued endodermis maturation is the formation of a watertight sheath around the vascular tissues.
      - Passage Cells are cells that that have only Casparian strips
    - - The cells begin to differentiate into a visible pattern, although none of the cells are mature.
        
        The outermost cells are protoderm and differentiate into epidermis.
        
        In the center is the provascular tissue, cells that develop into primary xylem and primary phloem.
      - The zone of elongation is similar to the shoot's subapical meristem region.
      - Just behind the root apical meristem itself is the region where cells expand greatly.
    - - Endodermis
        
        Casparian strips are involved in controlling the types of minerals that enter the xylem water stream.
        
        Innermost layer of cortical cells differentiates into a cylinder
      - Although cortex cells continue to enlarge, their most significant activity is transfer of minerals from the epidermis to the vascular tissue.
      - The zone of elongation merges gradually with the zone of maturation, no distinct boundary exists because the differences between the two represent the gradual continued differentiation of the cells.
      - Root hairs grow outward, greatly increasing absorption of water and minerals.
  - - - Just behind the zone of elongation is the root hair zone, a region where many of the epidermal cells extend out as narrow trichomes. #
      - Mucigel is a complex polysaccharide secreted by dictyosomes of root cap cells, it lubricates the passage of the root through the soil.
        
        Mucigel is rich in carbohydrates and amino acids which help rapid growth of soil bacteria around the root tip.
      - The root cap is a thick layer of cells protecting the root apical meristem.
      - In animals everything grows simultaneously, whereas in roots and stems it only grows at small meristematic regions.
        
        The root is embedded in a solid matrix, it's impossible for it all to grow at once.
        
        During apical growth, only the extreme tip pushes through soil.
      - In roots growth by discrete apical meristems is the only feasible type of longitudinal growth.
      - The root tip is the region where growth in length occurs.
      - Individual roots are simple, with no leaves or leaf scars and no leaf axils or axillary buds.
    - - Roots that are initiated in the stem tissue, but do not arise on pre-existing roots and are not radicals, they're known as adventitious roots.
        
        Adventitious roots increase absorptive and transport capabilities of the root system.
      - Most monocots and some eudicots have a mass of many similarly sized roots constituting a fibrous root system.
        
        Happens after radicle dies during or right after germination.
      - Most seed plants have a single prominent taproot that is much larger than all the rest and numerous small lateral roots or branch roots coming out of it.
        
        This taproot develops from the embryonic root, or radicle, that was present in the seed.
        
        After germination it grows and usually becomes the largest root in the system.
        
        Carrots
        
        Turnips
        
        Beets
        
        All have fine taproots, but they are removed before being sold.
      - Plants have a highly branched root system
- - - - If survival is universal
        
        Newly opened habitats
        
        Recently flooded plain covered with rich sediments
        
        Plowed field
        
        Recently burned area
        
        Sides of a road cut
      - It cannot operate if all individuals of a population are identical genetically or if it is impossible to become adapted to a certain condition.
    - - Factors that Are Not Part of Natural Selection
        
        Intention
        
        Voluntary Decision Making
        
        Planning
        
        Purpose
      - Natural Selection
        
        Natural Selection, which is the most significant factor causing gene pool changes, is usually described as survival of the fittest.
      - Artificial Selection
        
        Artificial Selection is the process in which humans purposefully change the allele frequency of a gene pool.
      - Accidents
        
        Accidents are events to which an organism cannot adapt, such as the collision of a large meteorite with Earth.
      - Mutation
        
        All genomes are subjected to mutagenic factors, and mutations occur continually.
    - - In many cases, the loss of individuals and reduced reproduction are not caused by a single factor.
  - - - Meteorites interiors, uncontaminated by soil and the fall through the atmosphere have:
        
        Nitrogenous bases that occur in nucleic acids
        
        Contained alcohols
        
        Amino Acids
        
        Sugars
    - - The atmosphere present today was derived from the early second atmosphere by this addition of oxygen from photosynthesis.
        
        It is an oxidizing atmosphere
    - - Monomers present in the early ocean had to polymerize if life were to arise, but polymerization required high concentrations of monomers.
    - - The chemosynthetic theory postulates a long series of slow, gradual transitions from completely inorganic compounds to living bacteria.
    - - The aggregates would have been complete heterotrophs, absorbing all material from the ocean and modifying only a few molecules.
    - - Time available for the origin of life
        
        Basically no limit
      - Energy Sources
        
        Gamma Radiation
        
        UV
      - Chemicals Present in the Atmosphere
        
        Hydrogen was the first atmosphere, but it was such a light gas that it was lost in space.
        
        A second atmosphere was produced by release of gases from the rock matrix composing Earth and from heavy bombardment by meteorites
    - - The next step in the possible chemical evolution of life would have been aggregation of chemical components into masses that had some organizations and metabolism.
  - - - This movement of alleles physically through space is called gene flow.
        
        Occurs in many ways such as:
        
        Vegetative Propogation
        
        If a species produces small, mobile pieces that reproduce vegetative, these too contribute to gene flow.
        
        Pollen Transfer
        
        If a new allele is carried by some of the pollen grains, it can move to very distant plants.
        
        Seed Dispersal
        
        Seeds can be carried by wind, floods, and stream flow.
      - Phyletic speciation in which one species gradually becomes so changed that it must be considered a new species.
    - - #
      - When two species occupy the same habitats and develop the same phenotype
    - - If alleles that arise in the one part of the range do not reach individuals in another part, the two regions are reproductively isolated.
        
        Reproductive isolation can occur in many ways, but the two fundamental causes are abiological and biological reproductive barriers.
        
        Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        When two groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together, the result is sympatric speciation
        
        Any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
        
        Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Allopatric is when a species divided into two or more populations cannot interbreed
        
        Also known as geographic speciation
        
        nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes
      - Divergent speciation in which some populations of a species evolve into a new, second species while other populations either continue relatively unchanged as the original, parental species or evolve into a new, third species.
- - - - Ferns can be found in almost any habitat
      - Equisetophytes only have15 species of living plants, the rest of the monilophytes have more than 12,000 species, and almost all of those are what are called leptosporangiate ferns #
      - Early ferns appeared in the Devonian Period and diversified greatly.
    - - With 15 extant species known as horsetails or scouring rushes.
      - They consist of several genera of extinct plants and one genus
        
        Equisetum
      - Equisetophytes have been classified as division Arthrophyta.
    - - Several current studies suggest that megaphyllous plants are united by three synapomorphies:
        
        Their roots have exarch xylem.
        
        They have a 30-kilobase inversion in the large single-copy region of their plastid DNA
        
        They have megaphylls.
    - - Three distinct types of homoplasic structures called leaves occur in plants:
        
        Leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
        
        Megaphylls, leaves that evolved from branch systems and are present in all seed plants, ferns, and equisetophytes
        
        Enations/Microphylls of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
    - - Division Trimerophytophyta was proposed in 1968 for three genera of extinct plants
        
        Trimerophyton
        
        Most important difference Overtopping
        
        Pertica
        
        Displays pseudomonopodial branching
        
        Psilophyton
        
        Their fossils strongly resemble those of rhyniophytes #
  - - - Isoetes
      - Lycopodium
      - Selaginella
    - - Necessary precondition for the evolution of seeds.
      - Many extinct and extant lycophytes sporangia are clustered together in compact groups called cones or strobili
    - - Lycophytes are called microphylls for clarity
      - Similar to presumed ancestors, Zosterophyllophytes, but important difference. #
        
        Their enations were large, up to 4 cm long, and they contained a single well-developed trace of vascular tissue.
      - Earliest lycophytes were members of the genera
        
        Baragwanathia
        
        Drepanophycus
  - - - Many of their features resembled rhyniophytes, except: #
        
        Their sporangia were lateral, not terminal.
        
        Sporangia opened transversely along the top edge.
        
        Their xylem was an exarch protostele, protoxylem on the outer margin and metaxylem in the center.
      - Small herbs without secondary growth.
      - Named after the principle genus Zosterophyllum
    - - In an endarch protostele protoxylem is located in the center and metaxylem differentiates on the outer edge of the xylem mass.
      - Protostele is when the center is a solid mass of xylem with no pith.
      - Rhynia and Aglaophyton, and Cooksonia
      - Epidermis with cuticle, cortex of parenchyma, simple bundle of xylem composed of tracheids with annular secondary walls. #
      - Fossils that have these general characters are called rhyniophytes.
      - Equal Dichotomous Branching
        
        Both branches being of equal size and vigor.
- - - - Basically feeding levels
    - - Refers to the number and diversity of species that coexist in an ecosystem
    - - The changes that an ecosystem undergoes with time
    - - The physical size and shape of the organisms and their distribution in relation to each other and the physical environment
  - - - r selection is a disturbance producing r conditions. # #
      - r is biotic potential # #
      - K is the carrying capacity
    - - Intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        Or Biotic potential
        
        The number of offspring produced by an individual that actually live to reproduce.
      - Generation Time
        
        The length of time from the birth of one individual until the birth of its first offspring.
    - - Uniform distributions are the types that occur in orchards and tree plantations.
      - Clumped distributions are those in which the spacing between plants is either small or large.
      - Random distribution is when there is no pattern of position of individuals.
      - The ability of a plant species to spread throughout a geographic area is a result of its adaptations to components of that area.
      - Limiting factor
        
        The determining factor of the health of the plant.
  - - - Aspects of the habitat that definitely affect a plant constitute its operational habitat.
      - Habitats are the set of conditions in which an organism completes its life cycle.
      - Biotic Components of the Habitat
        
        Organisms Other Than Plants
        
        Herbivores
        
        The process is called herbivory
        
        More often browsing or grazing.
        
        Animals that eat plants.
        
        Predation is a relationship in which one species benefits and the other is harmed.
        
        Commensal relationships one species benefits and the other is unaffected.
        
        Other Plant Species
        
        A niche is a set of conditions that a species is adapted to
        
        Competitive exclusion
        
        Whichever species is less adapted is excluded from the ecosystem by superior competitors.
        
        When the interaction is disadventageous
        
        Competition
        
        When the interaction is basically beneficial to both organisms.
        
        Mutualism
        
        The Plant Itself
        
        Modifies the habitat and is a part of it.
      - Abiotic Components of the Habitat
        
        Disturbance
        
        Disturbances are phenomena such as:
        
        Floods
        
        Snow Avalanches
        
        Landslides
        
        Fires
        
        Latitude and Altitude
        
        Latitude contributes many factors to the abiotic environment.
        
        Soil Factors
        
        C horizon composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragments.
        
        B horizon is the zone of deposition
        
        A horizon is uppermost and is sometimes called the zone of leaching.
        
        Pioneers are the first plants that invade a new soil.
        
        Soils are formed by breakdown of rock.
        
        Climate
        
        Climate itself has many components
        
        Winds
        
        Relative Humidity
        
        Rainfall
        
        Temperature
        
        Between the low and high extremes is the tolerance range of the organism.
        
        Climate is critically important to all organisms.
- - - - Emphasis is placed on whether the fruit is dry or fleshy.
  - - - is used if any nonovarian tissue is present
    - - is used to refer to fruits containing only ovarian tissue
- - - - Eat plants
      - Or do other harmful things
      - Lay eggs in them
  - - - If a flower has both, even if though it may lack either sepals or petals or both.
    - - Flowers that lack either or both essential organs are not only incomplete.
  - - - Chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth.
- - - - Endocarp
        
        Innermost layer
      - Mesocarp
        
        The middle layer
      - Exocarp
        
        The outer layer
  - - - karyogamy
        
        fusion of the nuclei.
      - plasmogamy
        
        fusion of the protoplasts of the gametes
  - - - Microspores develop into microgametophytes
    - - Within the ovule the surviving megaspore develops into a gametophyte.
  - - - Carpels
      - Sepals
      - Stamens
      - Petals