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COURSE MIND MAP, Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis (Light-dependent…

- - - - dry, hot area; close stomata
        
        reduced water loss, but hard to dissolve C02
      - :-1: conserving water
        
        reduce external surface by means of cylindrical leaves
      - :+1: for absorbing CO2
- - - - Some becomes glucose-6-phosphate
        
        in plants becomes: amylose, amylopectin, or cellulose
- - - - starch
        
        LIPIDS EVEN BETTER
        
        does not cause cells to absorb water
        
        lasts for years
        
        more stable than glucose
    - - glucose and disaccharide
        
        cause cells to absorb water by osmosis :warning:
        
        weeks or months :smiley:
        
        stable to move from cell to cell
    - - ATP & NADPH
- - - - not absorbed by chlorophyll a
  - - - shows which wavelengths are most effective
  - - - shows which wavelengths are strongly absorbed
  - - - fluorescence
    - - some have too little energy
        
        like infrared
        
        can't boost enough energy
      - would throw away e-
    - - absorbs only some red/blue lights
        
        visible lights have just right amount
        
        ground state to an excited state
    - - transfer absorbed light :explode: to e-
    - - absorbs certain wavelengths + distinctive color
        
        protect
  - - - humans see visible lights only
        
        390 nm to 760 nm
      - radiations differ in wavelengths and energy
        
        long wavelengths - little energy
        
        infrared, microwaves, radar, radio waves
        
        shorter wavelengths - high energy
        
        gamma rays, UV light, cosmic rays
      - quanta aka photons
        
        a set of waves
      - infrared light, microwaves, radio waves, visible light
      - gamma rays, X-rays, UV light
- - - - energy boosted by light again
      - back to PSI
      - 2 times
    - - 10 quanta to break water down
      - e- stripped away, protons used, oxygen in the stomata
    - - receives e- from Q
        
        receives e- from phaeophytin
        
        Q ~ molecule of quinone
      - donates e- to PSII
        
        gets it from plastoquinone
  - - - small protein
      - Reduced ~ strong reducing agent
      - NADP+ --> NADPH
    - - absorbs 700 nm most efficiently
- - - - 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde is made
  - - - 2 identical molecules are formed
        
        done by enzyme called RuBP carboxylase
        
        contains 3 carbons
        
        3-phosphoglycerate or PGA
- - - - Energized pigments are large molecules
        
        too energtic
        
        can react w/ anything
        
        aren't every mobile
        
        never move across membranes
    - - photosynthetic RXN makes ATP
        
        can makes almost any RXN
        
        enter almost every reaction
        
        If ATP can't enter
        
        Guanosine triphosphate goes in
    - - :forbidden:animals, fungi, + nonchlorophyllous pant tissue
        
        respire some high energy compounds
        
        consumed as food/imported by phloem
      - ADP-->ATP
      - occurs only in chloroplasts in :explode:
    - - high-energy phosphate groups are made
        
        force phosphate onto ADP
    - - ADP phosphorylated to ATP
  - - - doesn't carry as many electons
        
        covalent and ionic
      - CO2 --> Carbon = +4 - oxidation state
      - oxidation RXN
        
        increases +charge
      - oxidizing agent
        
        oxidize material they react w/
        
        NADP+ & NAD+
    - - electrons added to atom
      - reduction RXN
        
        reduces the + charge
      - Oxygen -- pull electrons away
      - reducing power
        
        force e- onto compounds
        
        important for plants
        
        take in CO2 & water
        
        convert it to macromolecules
      - reducing agent
        
        place e- onto other molecules
        
        NADH & NADPH
- - - - using CO2, water, nitrates, sulfate, and other minerals
  - - - materials --> construction materials instead of fuel
      - some organic materials--> build into polymers
      - the rest respire for energy
  - - - photoautotrophic
    - - heterotrophic
        
        live on carbohydrates
        
        imported through phloem
- - - - sunlight~pure white~entire visible spectrum
- - - - can put more energy in
- - - - iron carries e-
  - - - dissolve easily into lipid
  - - - metal - copper
    - - +1 --> reduced
- - - - different phenotypes are possible
  - - - expressed
  - - - probabiltiy
    - - pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs
  - - - Rr
    - - RR or rr
    - - first filial generation
        
        F2 generation
  - - - reduce chromosomes
        
        diploid to haploid
- - - - minimize the number of errors that occur in the first place
      - recognize base mismatches, loops, other problems
      - recognize and remove mutations
  - - - happens in cells
        
        never lead to sex cells
  - - - may code for protein with bad active site
  - - - powerful tool for genetic analysis
      - insertion sequence and transposons
    - - important ones are:
        
        many man made
        
        certain chemicals
        
        UV light, X-rays, radiation from radioactive substances
  - - - single base converted to another
- - - - Recombinant Chromosomes
        
        from crossing over
      - linked together
        
        heterozygius for 2 traits
      - usually don't undergo Independent assortment
  - - - Meiosis I + II
      - homologous
      - chromosome
        
        duplicated during S phase
      - alleles move independently to the alleles of other
  - - - independently or dependent
- - - - DOWN SYNDROME
      - 2 chromatids may remain together
      - change in chromosome number
    - - don't undergo mitosis after S phase
    - - diploid gametophytes and diploid gametes
  - - - its presence can kill the plant :warning:
        
        if detected, eliminated
  - - - pollen parent? ovule parent?
    - - megagamete
      - maternal inheritance
    - - alleles of both parent
      - all genes in nucleus undergoes this
- - - - two strands separate
        
        free nucleotides diffuse/pair with bases
        
        semiconservative replication
        
        ribonucleotides
        
        primer RNA
        
        for DNA polymerase #
        
        acts as substrate
        
        forms replicon
  - - - two chromatids
- - - - ex: R in flower trait #
        
        red color
      - result of complex metabolic process
- - - - identical nucleotides
        
        identical physically
      - DNA nucleotides
        
        alleles
        
        phenotype
        
        expression of allele
        
        Genotypes
        
        types of alleles
        
        arises by mutation
        
        if nucleotide sequence is mutated
        
        new sequence is new allele
        
        differ
        
        guides the construction of RNA/proteins
- - - - DNA hybridization
    - - if cooled down
        
        complementary sequences form hydrogen bonds
      - DNA melting and DNA denaturation
      - heat it
- - - - then divert plant's nucleic acid
        
        self-assemble into complete virus particle
        
        to synthesize more virus molecules
  - - - bind to viral DNA
        
        attract/adhere to more viral protein
  - - - plants, fungi, animals, protozoans, algae, prokaryotes
        
        bacteriophages
        
        virus that attack bacteria
        
        all are attacked by viruses
    - - not all of nucleic acid is packed as one particle
    - - source of reverse transcriptase
      - greatest number
      - contain single-stranded RNA
    - - long or short rods or even round particles
    - - cannot carry out metabolic functions
      - have no protoplasm, organelles, membranes
      - usually contains protein and nucleic acid only
- - - - Golden rice
      - not welcomed by people
      - genetically modified organisms
    - - ex. cotton plant got genes from Bacillus thuringiensis
      - to plants that originally did not have it
- - - - trans-acting factors
      - bind to promoter or enhancer
- - - - stop codon enters A site
        
        fit into P site
        
        recognized by release factors
      - polypeptide is released
    - - AA brought by tRNA to ribosomes
      - extending outward from mRNA strand
    - - Frameshift error
        
        wrong sets of three
      - important to align ribosomes on mRNA
      - eukaryotic initiation factors
        
        bind to smallest subunit
      - begins
        
        start codon: AUG
  - - - complementary to codons
    - - codon cannot interact directly with AA
  - - - plastids, mitochondira, prokaryotes
      - smaller, lighter
    - - eukaryotes
      - large and dense
    - - 3 types
- - - - modified by nuclear enzymes
      - both introns + exons
    - - link nucleotides to form an RNA strand
  - - - promoter
        
        controlling region
        
        regulate synthesis of mRNA
      - structural region
        
        TATA Box
        
        rich in A, T
        
        6 - 8 base pairs
    - - activated when needed only
      - quiescent most of the time
  - - - 64 possible triplets
        
        AUG
        
        start codon
        
        UAA, UAG, UGA
        
        stop codon
        
        using 4 nucleotides
        
        codons
        
        most AA have 2 or more codons
      - groups of 3
  - - - DNA/protein structure
    - - formed by histones
      - spherical structure
    - - no participation directly in synthesis
        
        mRNA
        
        if damaged, can be replaced
        
        enzymes, substrates. activators, controlling factors
        
        carry to site of synthesis
      - Histone proteins hold most nuclear DNA # #
        
        inert, resistant form
        
        in all organisms that have nuclei
      - Most stored in nucleus
        
        protected by nuclear envelope
        
        keep cytoplasmic components out
        
        formed during interphase
- - - - Gene
      - linear, polymer
        
        4 monomers - A,T,G,C
      - hold info for protein
    - - other properties of protein
      - structure
  - - - underlying development process
  - - - trachied/vessels - same enzymes/metabolism
        
        secondary wall deposition
        
        pattern varies
    - - enzymes
      - membrane proteins
      - microtubules
    - - respiration
- - - - stomata at least on the base
        
        pf sporangium
  - - - never free living
  - - - supplied by the grandparent generation
        
        endosperm formation
        
        sporophyte
    - - typically 6 cells other than egg
      - retained by gametophyte
- - - - parenchymaous
        
        rather succulent but brittle
        
        doesn't tolerate drying
        
        act as winter annuals
        
        dying before summer
        
        producing sporophytes in the spring
        
        growing in winter
        
        typically lives for less than 1 year in temperate climates
    - - upper surface
        
        in many
        
        thin, chlorophyllous lamellae grow upward
        
        in many - smooth
      - in center
        
        4+ cells thick
      - at least along the edge
  - - - Anthoceros + Phaeoceros
        
        most common
      - 5-6 genera
    - - stable eroded soil in shade
      - roadside cuts
    - - does not encounter them often
- - - - two groups are quite distinct
        
        sporangium
        
        differentiate into elaters
        
        do not undergo meiosis
        
        seta is delicate
        
        clear, thin-walled cells
        
        collapses quickly
        
        most have a foot, seta, calyptra covered sporangium
  - - - liverwort protonemata
        
        or as long lived as those of mosses
        
        never as extensive or ramified
      - gametophyte initiated when
        
        establish small, temporary protonematal phase
        
        spores germinate
      - thallose liverworts
      - leafy liverworts
        
        resembles those of moss
        
        thin leaves on a slender stem
        
        no conducting tissue
        
        2 rounded lobes w/ no midrib
        
        orders Jungermannials and Haplomitriales
- - - - gametophyte
        
        inside pollen grain and ovules
        
        tiny
      - sporophytes
        
        large plants w/ leaves/roots
  - - - true parenchyma derived by 3D growth
        
        usually from apical meristems
  - - - frequently mistaken to be mosses or liverworts
- - - - thin incomplete cuticle
        
        if exposed to dry air for even a minute
        
        plant drys out
    - - lack of conducting tisues
      - small size
  - - - mosses - oogamous
        
        biflagellate sperm cells + large nonmotile egg cells
        
        sperm - produced in microgametangia
        
        antherida
      - gametangia
    - - growth begins
        
        and send out long, slender chlorophyllous cell
        
        produce a branched system of similar cells
        
        protonema
        
        resembles filamentous green algae
        
        numerous small chloroplasts
        
        undergo mitosis
        
        when spore germinates
    - - innermost cortex
        
        hydroids
        
        leptoids
        
        elongated
        
        retain cytoplsm
        
        lack nuclei at maturity
        
        prominent interconnections
        
        resemble sieve cells
        
        species w/ hydroids also have
        
        aligned w/ those above and below it
        
        elongated cells
        
        end walls - partially digested
        
        not removed entirely
        
        lose their cytoplasm when mature
        
        conduct water and dissolved minerals
    - - all moss stems
        
        have leaves
        
        gametophores
        
        contain prominent cell
        
        derivative cell subdivide
        
        leaves in rather precise arrangements
        
        2 more items...
        
        stem tissues
        
        2 more items...
        
        grow from apical meristem
        
        not homologous with those of vascular plants
      - leafy stems
        
        grow close together
        
        tightly appressed + forms dense mounds
        
        aka gametophores
    - - perennial
        
        Mnium on soil
        
        Tortula on walls
        
        thrive in many places within cities
      - in almost all environment
      - occur in all parts of world
      - ubiquitous
- - - - retained water better
      - low surface to volume ratio
    - - continue active metabolism
    - - evolved to survive drying of their streams
      - began to adapt to living on land
  - - - spermatophytes
        
        Cycads, conifers, angiosperms
        
        :check: both
      - vascular cryptogams
        
        made feasible
        
        especially phloem
        
        roots, meristems, organ primordia
        
        evolution of truly heterotrophic tissues
        
        clubmosses, scouring rushes, ferns
        
        :check: vascular tissues, :red_cross:seeds
      - nonvascular plants
        
        arose first
        
        some later member - ancestors of vascular
        
        often called bryophytes
        
        :red_cross:vascular tissues :red_cross:seeds
    - - origin of seeds, leaves, woody growth
      - vascular xylem and phloem developments
      - adaptation to terrestrial habitats
      - their origin from green algae
- - - - form of primary growth
    - - all primary tissues #
        
        FIBERS
        
        makes it hard and "woody"
        
        vascular bundle in ground tissue
      - trunks don't taper at tips
  - - - flexibility
        
        adaptive
    - - 2 sectors active, other inctive
  - - - some become tree like and woody
        
        palms
        
        dragon tree
        
        Joshua tree
        
        type of V.C arises outside outermost vascular bundle
        
        parenchyma cells ~ rapid division
        
        cortex cells
  - - - protection :star:
        
        insects/pests
    - - secondary and new phloem
  - - - new vessels ~ surrounded by another new cambium
      - numerous vascular cambia arises
        
        speed storage capacity
        
        cell production rate is important
      - storage parenchyma ~ increased by a lot
    - - different from common type
- - - - ray parenchyma becomes larger, capacity increases
  - - - cork cells outside - protection
      - endodermis, cortex, epidermis shed
  - - - nonsucculent must become succulent
        
        take in+store water rapidly
    - - bc of more production of secondary xylem
- - - - first may arise in number of tissues
        
        epidermis, cortex, primary phloem, or secondary phloem
      - delayed formation is common
      - detectable in stems
        
        in some, takes several years
        
        color change from green to tan
      - some appear before twig or root is 1 year old
  - - - intercellular spaces
        
        erenchymatous cork
        
        diffusion pathway for oxygen
      - become rounded as they mature
    - - advantage and disadvantge
        
        advantages
        
        retains water
        
        keeps pathogens out
        
        disadvantages
        
        interferes with respiration
        
        sapwood, vascular cambium, and inner bark
        
        blocks oxygen
  - - - different from vascular cambium
        
        secondary phloem
        
        inner bark
        
        periderm
        
        temporary protection
        
        growing inside of it
        
        impermeable barrier
        
        phelloderm (if any)
        
        layers of cork cells
        
        maturing increase in volume
        
        cell death critical
        
        cork cambium
        
        short lived
        
        cuboidal cells
        
        phelloderm
        
        outer cells into cork cells
        
        inner cells in cambium
        
        outside comprise the outer bark
        
        structure and morphogenic activity
      - cork cambium (phellogen)
- - - - fibers and nonconducting parenchyma
      - sieve cells
        
        conifers
      - sieve tube members/companion cells
        
        angiosperms
      - conduction up and down the stem/root
- - - - or irregularly, w/o horizontal rows
        
        nonstoried cambium
      - regular horizontal rows
        
        storied cambium
        
        redbud and persimmon
    - - short, vertical rows
        
        one, two,or many cell wide
  - - - in gymnosperms, albuminous cells
      - storage parenchyma
      - produces short cells
    - - 1 in cambium & other in xylem or phloem
  - - - plastids present as proplastids
    - - increase # of cambial cells
      - perpendicular to cambium's surface
    - - makes 2 elongate cells
        
        inner daughter cell in cambium, outer cell, phlem
        
        outer daughter cell in cambium, inner is xylem
        
        2: secondary xylem and secondary phloem
        
        1: continues to fusiform initials
      - wall parallel
        
        to periclinal wall
  - - - younger
    - - older
    - - mature parenchyma cells resume mitosis
        
        interfacicular cambium produced
        
        complete cyinder
        
        connects to fascicular cambia
      - never undergo cell cycle arrest
      - continue to divide
        
        become fascicular cambium
    - - located b/w metaxylem and metaphloem
        
        become conducting tissues
- - - - underside of the branch
        
        compression wood
        
        lignin and less cellulose
        
        wide growth rings
    - - upper side of the branch
        
        tension wood
        
        special gelatinous fibers
        
        prevents branches from drooping
  - - - plug
    - - water columns breaks
        
        new water filled tracheary
  - - - early wood + late wood 1 year's growth
    - - after early wood: LATE WOOD
        
        older, larger, needs more strength
        
        lower proportion of vessels
      - first wood formed :warning: EARLY WOOD
        
        later cuticle thickens, transpires less, conducts fast
        
        high proportion of wide vessels
      - need high conducting capacity
      - lose water quickly
    - - later unstresses
  - - - woody angiosperms
        
        only parenchyma
        
        uniseriate, biseriate, multiseriate
        
        store carbs +nutrients during dormant
        
        called rays cells
        
        2 basic types
        
        procumbent cells
        
        upright cells
        
        1 more item...
    - - woody angiosperms
        
        Softwoods
        
        few/no fibers, soft consistency
        
        hardwoords
        
        basal angiosperms + eudicots
        
        fibers ~ give strength + flexibility
      - contains tracheary elements
        
        longitudinal conduction of water
        
        xylem parenchyma
    - - reflects that of fusiform and ray
        
        radial system - ray initials
        
        axial system - from fusiform
- - - - if killed b4 reproduction
        
        waste of resources
    - - energy rich
        
        wood burn readily
    - - adapt to temperate climate
      - need greater defense
  - - - photosynthetic capacity increase
        
        seeds production/ defensive chemicals increase
        
        must be in good, suitable sites
        
        grow into adults and reproduce
      - support increases
      - minerals/ water, upward; carbs, downward
  - - - produced to get sugar/water to new stems
    - - irises, bamboo, ferns
    - - helps with overproduction and water loss
      - needs of leaves and roots
  - - - roses, oleanders, and azaleas
      - sycamores, chestnuts, pines, firs
        
        woody plants
      - secondary plant body
    - - herbs
        
        only body that develops
      - primary plant body
        
        in woody plants
        
        new tissues
        
        wood and bark
        
        secondary phloem and cork
        
        secondary xylem
        
        additional tissues produced in stems/roots
- - - - pyruvate->used for acetyl CoA
- - - - C6H12O6 + O2--> CO2 + H2O + ATP
        
        High amount of :explode:
        
        longer process
        
        many plants and animals
  - - - C6H12O6 --> Lactic acid/ethanol + ATP
        
        ONLY IN CYTOPLASM :red_flag:
        
        little :explode: produced
        
        faster process than aerobic
        
        human muscle cells, bacteria, yeast, etc
- - - - Light beer - few calories
        
        add water --> dilute it and lower alcohol content
        
        convert most starch to sugar
        
        use mash w/ less carbs
    - - strong flavor
    - - GERMINATE ->ENZYMES -> BREAK DOWN STARCH
  - - - ethanol boiling point: 78 degrees Celsius
      - to make it stronger, strong alcohol or distill it
        
        distilled examples: vodka, gin, or whiskey
      - after 20%, soln. is toxic to yeast
  - - - BAC 0.15%+ :red_flag:
      - fetal alcohol syndrome :warning:
      - ALCOHOLISM :warning:
      - DEATHS :warning:
      - red wine :<3:
      - 2 drinks/day - low heart disease risk :<3:
  - - - sherry, port, madeira
    - - sugar remains, sweet wine; sugar leaves, dry wine
      - Lethal levels
- - - - secondary usually thicker
    - - polysaccharide cellulose
  - - - actin
  - - - glyoxysomes ~ convert stored fats into sugars
      - peroxisomes ~ detoxifying
      - both isolate rxn that either use/produce peroxide
  - - - ER vesicles fused together
  - - - rough (ribosomes attached)
  - - - rRNA
      - tRNA
      - mRNA
        
        makes polysome
  - - - chlorophyll
    - - difference: inner fluid called stroma
        
        thylakoid project into stroma
      - inner membrane and outer membrane
    - - ex. photosynthesis by chloroplasts
        
        glucose production
  - - - forms the cristae
    - - shape and little rigidity
    - - Critic acid cycle :star:
  - - - move calcium into vacuole
  - - - nuclear pores
        
        TRANSPORT
      - separates nuclear material
      - composed of outer and inner membrane
  - - - differ in proteins they contain
- - - - formation
    - - uses energy
    - - move charged substances. ex. organic molecules
      - hydrophilic
    - - charges substances~important
      - more permeable to hydrophobic substances
      - selectively permeable membrane
        
        certain things go in and out
    - - common in algae + other microscopic organisms
      - take in
    - - ex. in flowers, nectar is excreted
      - excrete almost anything
    - - lumen
  - - - oligosaccharides
        
        glycoprotein
    - - connection
      - fluid mosaic
      - domains
        
        different
        
        small discrete regions
      - extrinsic
        
        aka peripheral proteins
        
        outside the membrane
      - intrinsic proteins
        
        partially immersed in lipid bilayer
      - some hydrophobic
      - phospholipid phosphates & water
      - large hydrophilic regions
    - - agitated water-->bilayer
        
        very thin
      - phospholipids ~ hydrophobic
- - - - :red_cross:individuality
      - one protoplast to another
  - - - can't excrete anywhere
      - share same source of photosynthesis, oxygen, etc
  - - - communicate indirectly
- - - - etc.
      - mitochondria
      - nuclei
- - - - Has chitin instead of cellulose :warning:
        
        has nitrogen + synthesized differently
        
        very similar
      - :red_cross:plastids
- - - - emphasizes fruit opening
        
        indehiscent fruits
        
        don't do the above
        
        dehiscent fruits
        
        break open/releases seeds
    - - whether fruit is dry or fleshy
        
        fleshy fruit
        
        eaten during natural distribution process
        
        dry fruit
        
        not typically eaten
  - - - any nonovarian tissue is present
      - or false fruit
    - - fruits containing only ovarian tissue
    - - tissues of the fruit regardless of their origins
- - - - one small flower may be overlooked
        
        but hundreds are together (close)
      - give a visual signal to pollinators
  - - - example
        
        mountain ash or cherry tree
        
        every year for over 100 years
        
        produces thousands of flower
      - or over a period of many years
      - either within a single year
- - - - may grow out
        
        even while the parent plant is still alive
      - form on roots
        
        and then grow into plants
  - - - most common: Fragmentation
        
        large spreading plant grows
        
        individual parts
        
        if middle part of dies
        
        ends become separated
        
        acts as individuals
        
        by establishing adventitious roots
        
        become sufficient
        
        several meters
- - - - or small cluster flowers
        
        attract animals
    - - attract animals
  - - - sepals/petals
        
        do not produce spores
    - - if both present
        
        even if sepals/petals absent
        
        perfect flowers
      - if either organ is absent
        
        imperfect flowers
        
        sepals/petals
      - produce critically important spores
      - stamens/carpals
  - - - inhabitated by compatibility barriers
        
        chemical rxn
        
        b/w pollen and carpals
        
        prevent pollen growth
  - - - anthers are at the top
        
        elevated by elongated filaments
      - stigma may be near the base
    - - while stigma tissues are immature
  - - - random mutation
      - genetic diversity
    - - or by another flower on the same plant
      - pollination by same flower
    - - by pollen of different individual
- - - - co-enocytic stage never occurs in the embryo
      - by both nuclear and cellular division
      - zygote begins to grow
        
        small cluster of cells
        
        other becomes a short stalk-like structure
        
        pushes embryo down the endosperm
        
        suspensor
        
        part becomes embryo proper
  - - - through the style toward ovule
      - downward
        
        guided to the ovule's microphyle
    - - fusion of the nuclei
    - - fusion of protoplasts of gametes
  - - - within the ovule
        
        surviving megaspore develops
    - - with sepals
        
        make up perianth
      - made up of corolla
      - above the sepals on the receptable
        
        leaf-like
    - - thickest, toughest, waxiest
      - modified leaves
        
        as they mature
        
        surround/enclose other parts
      - lowermost/outermost
    - - four types of floral appendages
        
        incomplete flowers
        
        lack one or more of the basic appendages
        
        complete flowers
        
        example
        
        lilies - 3 of everything
        
        have all four
        
        sepals, petals, stamens. carpels
      - stalk
        
        very end is receptable
        
        pedicle
      - never become woody
        
        :red_cross:secondary growth
      - stem w/ leaf-like structures
  - - - SPOROPHYTE :star:
        
        produces spores #
        
        cannot undergo syngamy
        
        each undergo mitosis
        
        GAMETOPHYTE :star:
        
        plants that produces gametes
        
        grows into entire new haploid plant cells
        
        have in flowers of angiosperms
        
        cells
        
        capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        results: HAPLOID SPORES
        
        ALWAYS DIPLOID :star:
      - trees, shrubs, herbs
        
        one phase #
      - or sporophyte generation
- - - - ex.
        
        seeds late defecated
        
        strawberries are eaten
  - - - progeny - affected by minor changes
      - no variability
    - - reproduce asexually
        
        even isolated ones can reproduce
        
        rapid colonization is possible
        
        or sending out runners
        
        new similarly adapted individuals
        
        by budding
  - - - sexual reproduction
        
        sex cells of 1 plant
        
        sex cells
        
        very small
        
        many can be produced by a single plant
        
        may be one or more
        
        combines w/ those of other
      - under some conditions
        
        survive better #
        
        those who are homogeneous
      - genetically different
        
        under some conditions
        
        survive better #
    - - identical copies of the parental genes
- - - - organisms affect one another
  - - - in an area
  - - - communities that in live tree's branches
      - organisms that live in lakes
    - - regions too wet for tree to gorw
      - tree lines
  - - - many other relations
        
        commensalism
        
        mutalistic
      - or might be predator
    - - same place
      - at same time
- - - - higher latitude
        
        more severe conditions
      - tropical regions
        
        benign environments
        
        near equator
  - - - S = cA^z
        
        c & z - constants
        
        study individual communities
        
        A - area
        
        S - # of species
    - - larger areas-more diverse
        
        larger population
        
        less likely to die out
        
        more variations
        
        geology
        
        topography
        
        in types of soil
      - common observation matters
  - - - all national parks and wildlife
      - species checklist
        
        always incomplete
        
        usually not necessary
        
        impossible
- - - - diff. to recognized on food web :warning:
  - - - harsh condition environment
        
        in better areas
        
        carnivores feed on carnvores
        
        higher levels
        
        can be more
        
        so only 3 levels
        
        very few carnivores
        
        herbivores sparse
        
        primary producers pop in sparse
      - primary producers
        
        plants,algae,cyanobacteria
      - secondary consumers
        
        carnivores
      - primary consumers
        
        herbivores
- - - - they build dams thats useful to environment
        
        not useful to them though
      - beavers
    - - plays role in succession
        
        primary succession especially
        
        animals become established
        
        new created substrates
  - - - that reduce costs and minimize benefits
    - - pollinators and the plants they pollinate
- - - - vice versa
      - prey pop. low, predator pop. low
  - - - one organism restricts resource
    - - organisms consume shared resource
    - - minearls
      - light
      - water
    - - interspecies competition
  - - - criticized
        
        too simplistic
      - dN/dt = rN -aNP
    - - the two make up
        
        predator's functional response
        
        dependent on prey density
      - its handling time
        
        amount of time needed
      - predator's feeding rate
        
        how quickly
    - - competition + growth slow
    - - almost every herbivore attacks
        
        several species of plants
      - plant is attacked by multiple predators
    - - attacked by primary consumer
- - - - 4 assumptions
        
        pop. in patch have probability of going extinct
        
        fugitive species
        
        empty patch - become colonized
        
        migration important
        
        ex. birds flying from one to another
        
        some patches occupied some not
        
        pop. size always vary
        
        conservation/perservation
        
        discrete patches
        
        source habitat
        
        high quality
        
        sink habitat
        
        low quality
      - several local pop.
        
        gene flow between patches
        
        interconnected by migration
    - - ex. Maples
- - - - obtain nitrogen by digesting
        
        active or passive traps
        
        passive - immobile
        
        Nepenthes, Darlintonia, Sarracenia
        
        Active - move
        
        Drosera
        
        need for amino acid
  - - - mesophyll cells surrounds sheath
  - - - contain cells -- capable of sensing contact with an object
        
        when it touches something, stops growing
        
        other side continues to elongate
        
        grows around
      - grows indefinitely
  - - - only tightly packed fibers
    - - has good water
      - cactus spines -- modified leaves of axillary buds
        
        protective
      - 2 types of leaves
        
        green cactus has microscopic green leaves
        
        plus cluster of axillary bud
  - - - only protection, NO PHOTOSYNTHESIS
        
        thin layer of corky bark
        
        tougher and waxier than regular leaves
  - - - Metasequoia
      - Taxodium
      - Larix
    - - epidermis and hypodermis cells have thick walls
      - thick cuticle
  - - - leaves harden
        
        resistant to animals, fungi, freezing temp. UV light
        
        has sclerenchyma
        
        leaves are sclerophylls
        
        these plants are sclerophyllous
    - - limits sclerenchyma in foliage leaves
        
        soft, flexible, edible
  - - - reduces internal evaporative SA
        
        also water loss through stomta
    - - favors water conservation
      - shape that reduces the surface-to-volume ratio
        
        advantageous for water retention
        
        some cylindrical, some spherical
    - - ice plants
    - - Kalanchoe and Sedum
    - - Portulaca and Lewisia
- - - - large enough to contribute photosynthesis
      - protect shoot apical meristem
        
        when leaf is young
      - two flaps of tissues
    - - remain distinct or fuse together
      - branch from stem vascular bundle
    - - epidermis may be similar
      - tissue arrangement differs
    - - palms, rhubarb, celery, water lilies
  - - - some means by which water moves
      - rigidity to blade
      - mass of fibers
    - - midrib/lateral vein
        
        bundle sheath (fibers)
        
        difficult for insects to chew
        
        around vascular tissue
        
        conduction
        
        they always contain primary xylem and primary phloem
      - minor veins
        
        ending: only xylem
        
        no fibers/nonconducting cell
        
        site of material exchange
        
        loading sugar from phloem
        
        important for releasing water from xylem
      - lateral veins
      - usually one large mid-rib
  - - - open, loose aerenchyma
        
        permits CO2
        
        from stomata to other parts
      - lower portion
    - - maximum absorption of light and photosynthesis
      - separated slightly
        
        intercellular space
        
        CO2 dissolve into cytoplasm
      - main photosynthetic tissue of most plants
      - aka palisade mesophyll
  - - - retains water
    - - lower: rapid air movement + slow water loss
      - upper: provides shade
    - - most stomata in the lower epidermis
        
        beneficial
        
        contains crypts
        
        water can enter
        
        only few fungi can get in
      - no stomata at the upper epi. in most
      - different microclimates on both ends
    - - guard cells and trickomes
        
        may be abundant
      - flat, tabular, ordinary epidermal cells
    - - transpiration
- - - - sheathing leaf base + original conical leaf primordium
        
        now on side of top of tube
      - forms leaf primordium
        
        cells involve until primordium encircles apical meristem
  - - - 2 rows of loci initiate leaflets
    - - as it grows, increases in thickness
      - leaf protoderm and leaf ground meristem
      - protrusion from cells interior to protoderm
- - - - fleshy leaves of bulbs
    - - tendrils
    - - spines
      - bud scales
  - - - function together to survive
      - leaves
        
        flat and thin
        
        maximum light absorption + CO2
        
        tissues must be alive
        
        chlorophyll-rich chlorenchyma
        
        carry out photosynthesis
      - stems
        
        elevate leaves
        
        conduct materials to/from them
        
        cylindrical stem
        
        maximum conduction and support
        
        most of the stem must be dead
        
        to be functional
- - - - absorbs CO2
      - use light
      - makes crabohydrate
  - - - harvests light
      - simple or compound
        
        simple: one part
        
        large blade could be teared up :warning:
        
        compound: divided into several individual parts
        
        leaflets
        
        petiolule
        
        rachis
    - - below the blade
        
        larger veins; backbones
    - - upper side
        
        smooth
    - - hold blade in light
      - prevents shades
      - leaves flutter in wind (thin petiole)
    - - small/very long and narrow
      - self-shading, not problem
      - aeonium
      - deserts
    - - leaf base wraps around the stem
    - - distribute water (stem-->leaf)
      - collect sugar (photosynthesis)
        
        carry them to stems
      - eudicots and angiosperms
        
        reticulate venation
      - monocots
        
        long, strap-shaped leaves
        
        larger (side by side), interconnections
        
        parallel venation
    - - leaf base (location)
      - perpendicular to petiole
      - cutting off the leaf when it's not useful anymore
    - - protective scar tissue
      - monocots, ferns, cycads
- - - - subpical
        
        metaxylem'
        
        constitute first xylem to appear
        
        protoxylem
        
        some stop dividing and elongate
        
        visible differentiation begins
      - cells are also growing and dividing
- - - - collteral
        
        primary xylem/primary phloem
        
        xylem + phloem running parallel
      - in monocots
        
        "scattered"
        
        inner part of stems
      - pith
        
        angiosperms and eudiocots
        
        parenchyma region
      - located interior of cortex
      - xylem and phloem
    - - not a circulatory system :warning:
      - 2 types
        
        phloem
        
        sieve cells and sieve tube members
        
        phloem cells ~ living
        
        distributes sugars and minerals
        
        xylem
        
        tracheids and vessel elements
        
        enter thru roots
        
        water + minerals
    - - most fit together compactedly
        
        some are open
      - photosynthetic parenchyma and sometimes collenchyma
      - simple/homogenous
      - interior to epidermis
    - - pores and guard cells
      - cutin and cuticle
      - different from human epidermis :red_flag:
        
        plant: interchange of materials b/w it and environment
        
        waterproofing; indigestible by bacteria, fungi, animals
      - single layer of parenchyma
      - outermost surface
- - - - but grow for short time
  - - - crocus, gladiolus
      - thin, papery leaves
  - - - onions, garlic, daffodils
      - thick, fleshy leaves
  - - - leaves don't expand
  - - - vegetative bud or floral bud
        
        terminal bud
        
        bud scales
      - dormant apical meristem
      - miniature shoot
  - - - region b/w nodes
- - - - fibers
        
        involved in storage
        
        many types are dead, some alive
        
        long
      - sclereids
        
        often dead at maturity
        
        more or less isodiametric
    - - long/narrow
      - vascular plants
    - - can be deformed
      - ELASTIC
  - - - CONNECTION!! :!:
    - - just under epidermis
      - ex. vining plants like grapes
    - - can be stretched
    - - some areas thin, some thick
  - - - when they open, they die
      - some stamens/flowers must open
    - - phloem
      - most common
      - mass of cells
    - - typically alive at maturity
      - remain thin
- - - - never becomes woody
  - - - grasses, lilies, cattails, palms, philodendrons
    - - roses, asters, maples
    - - waterlilies, magnolias, laurels
- - - - mutations
        
        if deleterious
        
        reproduce slower or die
        
        if beneficial
        
        reproduce better
        
        affect fitness of the individual
        
        more or less adapted to environment
        
        new alleles or new genes
- - - - different phenotypes
        
        from differential survival
      - inherit traits from parents
      - individuals have different characteristics/traits
      - More offsprings produced than can survive
      - survival of the fittest
        
        most adapt to the environment survive
    - - selective breeding of animals
      - selective breeding of crops
        
        wild population and cultivated plants
      - human purposefully change allele frequency
        
        look for desirable qualities
    - - many phenomenas
      - collision of a large meterorite
        
        with earth
        
        large surface is destroyed
        
        all organisms are eliminated
        
        example
      - organisms cannot adapt
    - - significance
        
        depends on population size
      - new alleles increases
      - existing alleles decrease in frequency
      - all genomes
- - - - species enter little to no competition
  - - - Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        evolutionary changes
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        flower color, shape, or fragence
        
        prevents successful gene flow
      - Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        original species is divided
        
        cannot interbred
        
        allopatric or geogrphic speciation
        
        physical, nonliving
        
        prevents two populations
  - - - vegetative propagation
        
        small, mobile pieces
      - seed dispersal
        
        some fall close to parents
        
        some have long distance dispersal mechanism
        
        wind, floods, streams
        
        seeds and fruits
      - pollen transfer
        
        pollen grains
        
        good travel distances
        
        ragweed, grasses, conifers
      - alleles spread throughout
    - - must be considered new species
- - - - hydrogen gas - very light
        
        formation of second atmosphere
        
        molecular oxygen
        
        missing
        
        a lot of gases
  - - - J.B,.S Haldane
- - - - stamens - wall defined filament/stalk and anther
      - whorls
      - tricolpate
- - - - 3 groups - Amborellaceae, Nymphaeaceae, + Austrobaileyales
        
        Austrobaileyales
        
        with stamens and carpels
        
        woody trees w/ bisexual flowers
        
        Nymphaeaceae
        
        water lilies
- - - - arranged spirally
      - contains all parts
        
        sepals, petals, stamens, carpals
    - - thought to relictual
    - - all existing flower types
        
        come from generalized ancestor
  - - - represent monocot and dicot leaves #
  - - - didn't evolve more then once
- - - - divided into basal angiosperms clades first
    - - Flowering plants began to follow 2 lines of evolution
        
        all angiosperms classified as
        
        either monocot or eudicot
        
        eudicot
        
        reticulated venation in leaves
        
        woody, herbaceous, succulent
        
        vascular bundles - only 1 ring in stem
        
        flower parts - in sets of 5
        
        2 cotyledon on the embryo
        
        more diverse
        
        monocots - 1 cotyledon on their embryo
        
        leaves - parallel veins
        
        vascular bundles - stems
      - two widely referenced books
        
        Plant Systematics
        
        Phylogenetic Approach
- - - - peak of plant evolution
      - or most derived
      - as most advanced group of plants
    - - synapomorphy that separates from other clades
  - - - single division classified
      - also called Angiospermophyta