Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Course (Chapter 19:Algae and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells…

- - - - Coccolithophorids
        
        Do not decompose
        
        Relatively inert
        
        aka Coccoliths
      - Almost always have flagella
      - Either uniflagellate or biflagellate
      - Develop within special vesicles in the ER
      - Single cells covered with numerous tiny siliceous scales
    - - Vaucheria
        
        Large central vacuole
        
        Long tubular coenocyte
      - Tribonema
      - Contain chloropyll c
      - Occur mostly in fresh water
    - - Diatomaceous Earth
        
        Deposits of Siliceous Frustules
      - Clade of heterokont
      - Distinctive morphology
    - - Trumpet Cells
        
        Carry-out long-distance transport of carbohydrates
        
        Resemble sieve tube members
      - Conceptacles
        
        Some undergo meiosis
        
        Small cavities
      - Receptacles
        
        Swollen with large deposits of hydrophilic compounds
        
        Ends of Branches
      - All multicellular
      - Cell walls contain cellulose and alginic acid
      - Laminarin
        
        Constitutes up to 34% of the body weight
        
        Storage product
      - Grow in the Littoral Zone
        
        Region between low & high tide
      - Almost exclusively marine
  - - - In the walls of algae
    - - Occurs in cytoplasm as granules
      - Branched polymer of glucose
      - Excess photosynthate
  - - - Motile Colonies
        
        Cells adhere loosely
        
        All cells are similar
        
        None is particularly specialized
      - Nonmotile Colonies
        
        Cells lose flagella or never develop them
      - Filamentous Body
        
        Cells are held tightly by a middle lamella
        
        Holdfast
        
        Attaches filaments to a rock
      - Membranous Body
        
        Orientation of cell divisions is controlled precisely such that all new walls occur in only two planes.
      - Parenchymatous Body
        
        Cell division occurs rapidly in all three planes
        
        Bulky-Three dimensional
        
        Cells are interconnected by plasmodesmata
      - Coenocytic Body
        
        aka Siphonous Body
        
        Karyokinesis occurs without cytokinesis, and giant multinucleate cells result.
        
        Acetabularia
    - - Dibiontic
        
        Alternation of generations between haploid and diploid
      - Monobiontic Species
        
        Specialization occurs in that only one free-living generation exists.
      - Alternation of Isomorphic Generations
        
        Gametophyte & Sporophyte resemble strongly
      - Alternation of Heteromorphic Generations
        
        Gametophyte and Sporophye are very different
      - Isogamous
        
        Identical
      - Anisogamy
        
        Slight differences in Gametes
        
        Evolved Later
      - Oogamy
    - - Unicellular Species
        
        Chlamydomonas
        
        Simplest chlorophytes
        
        Has chlorophyll a and b
        
        Two anterior flagella
      - Motile Colonial Species
        
        Zygote divides
        
        Progeny cells are held together by gelatinous matrix
        
        Gonium
        
        Each colony contains only a few cells
        
        Flagella beat in coordination
      - Filamentous Species
        
        Members of Genus Ulothrix
        
        Isogamous
        
        Monobiontic life cycle
        
        Haploid
        
        Zoospores
        
        Grow into new filaments
        
        Conjugation
        
        Undergone by Haploid filaments
      - Laminar Species
        
        Ulva
        
        Almost identical to Ulothrix #
        
        Quadriflagellate
        
        Haploid
        
        Dividing cells form sheets
      - Coenocytic Species
        
        Derbesia
        
        Dibiontic life cycle
      - Parenchymatous Species
        
        Charophytes
        
        Undergo cell division by means of a phragmoplast
        
        Chara
        
        Sister group to the embryophyte clade
        
        Multicellular reproductive structures
    - - Streptophytes
        
        Monophyletic clade of:
        
        Charophytes
        
        Embryophytes
      - Archaeplastids
        
        aka Primoplantae
        
        Names suggested for the clade of:
        
        Red Algae
        
        Green Algae
        
        Embryophytes
  - - - More elaborately packaged than in prokaryotes
        
        Nucleosome Histones
        
        Forming Chromosomes
      - DNA molecule carries thousands of genes
      - Many genes contain introns
    - - Quite sophisticated
      - Contains most of the DNA
      - Eukaryote= True Nucleus
      - Contains Nucleolus
      - Typically Haploid or Diploid
    - - Nucleus
      - Mitochondria
      - Plastids
        
        In plants and algae
      - Dictyosomes
      - Endoplasmic Reticulum
      - Vacuoles
      - Vesicles
      - Ribosomes
        
        80S
      - Flagella & Cilia
        
        9+2 arrangement of microtubules
    - - Origin of Mitochondria
        
        Prokaryote evolved to have some eukaryotic species.
        
        80S ribosomes
        
        Nuclear Envelope
        
        Hetertrophic
        
        Prokaryote was engulfed by a Eukaryote
      - Types of Cytokinesis
        
        Several types occur in Algae
        
        Phycoplast
        
        May be associated with division
        
        Microtubules oriented parallel to the plane where the new wall will form.
      - Autogenous Theory
        
        Prokaryotes eventually became more complex, and became eukaryotes
      - Endosymbiont Theory
        
        Revived in the 1960s
        
        Found by KC Mereschkowsky
        
        Speculated that plastids & mitochondia are prokaryotes in eukaryotes.
      - Origin of Plastids
        
        Arise similarly to mitochondria
        
        Engulfed partner would’ve been photosynthetic
        
        Prochloron
        
        First prochlorophyte
        
        Primary Endosymbiosis
        
        Gave rise to a clade containing red, and green algae
        
        Secondary Endosymbiosis
        
        Produced other lines of Algae
        
        Heterokonts
        
        Two flagella of different types
        
        Smooth
        
        Hairy
        
        Early Eukaryotes
        
        Gave rise to diatoms, brown algae, etc.
  - - - Diverse in structure and nutrition
      - Lack cholorplasts
        
        Must be parasitic or saprophytic
      - Most are aquatic
      - Mostly sexual reproduction
      - Severe Plant Pathogens:
        
        Plasmopara viticola
        
        Disease of grapes
        
        Phytophthora infestans
        
        Disease of potatoes
        
        Cause of Irish potato famine
    - - So numerous that the water is reddish
- - - - Third group to evolve from Trimerophytes
    - - Archaeosperma arnoldii
        
        Megasporangium
        
        Micropyle
        
        Permitted sperm cells to swim to the egg
        
        Hole in integument
        
        Integument
        
        Layer of tissue surrounding megasporangium
        
        Produced Three small, aborted cells
        
        Produced Only one large, viable megaspore
      - Earliest known progymnosperm species with Heterospory=
        
        Chauleria
        
        Middle Devonian Period
    - - Heterosporous Reproduction
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Secondary phloem
        
        Abundant wood
      - More derived
    - - All contain vascular cambium and secondary growth
      - Examples:
        
        Eospermatopteris
        
        Triloboxylon
        
        Protopteridium
        
        Aneurophyton
        
        Tetraxylopteris
        
        Proteokalon
      - Contains more relictual progymnosperms
  - - - Lyginopteris
      - Calamopitys
      - Stenomyelon
    - - Thought to have evolved from Aneurophytales
  - - - Develops into the embryo
    - - Cone Bracts
        
        Leaves on short acis
      - Compound Cones
        
        More complex
        
        Seed Cones
      - Simple Cones
        
        Pollen Cones
    - - Short shoots
        
        Produce long needle leaves
        
        In axils
      - Long shoots
        
        Produce tiny, papery leaves
    - - One or two long veins
    - - About 550 species
      - About 50 genera
  - - - Megasporophylls
      - Microsporophylls
  - - - Most relictual
    - - Produce seed cones & pollen cones
  - - - Welwitschia mirabilis
        
        Short, wide stem & 2 leaves
        
        Only exist in South African deserts
        
        1 species
      - Ephedra
        
        Leaves are reduced and scalelike
        
        Common is desert regions
        
        Tough shrubs and bushes
        
        40 species
      - Gnetum
        
        Broad leaves similar to dicots
        
        Mostly vines or small shrubs
        
        30 species
- - - - Usually in Agrobacterium tumefasciens
      - Insertion vector
    - - Golden Rice
      - Not always welcomed
      - aka GMOs
    - - Codes for a protein toxic to caterpillars
      - Genes recieved by cotton plants
  - - - Heat treatment inactivates some viruses
      - Symptoms similar to:
        
        Environmentally caused problems
        
        Mineral Deficiency
    - - Mostly gene portions closely related to the host
    - - Many are self-assembly process
    - - Temperate
        
        Both daughter cells recieve infected DNA
      - Virulent
        
        Virus multiplies quickly, & dominates the cell
      - Bacteriophages
        
        Extremely specific
        
        Viruses that attack bacteria
    - - Split Genome Viruses
        
        Not all nucleic acid is packaged as one particle
      - Retroviruses
        
        Source of reverse transcriptases
        
        Contain single-stranded RNA
        
        Greatest number of viruses
      - Simple morphology
      - Extremely small particles
      - Usually contain only protein and nucleic acid
  - - - Proceeds rapidly
      - Transcription
        
        DNA strans seperate over a short region
        
        Free nucleotides diffuse into the region
        
        C & G match
        
        T & A match
        
        RNA polymerase creates RNA
        
        hnRNA
        
        Forms poly(A) Tail
        
        Approximately 200 bases long
        
        aka Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA
        
        Continues until encountering a stop codon
    - - 2 Types of Regions
        
        Introns
        
        Codons are not expressed
        
        Exons
        
        Sequence whose codons are eventually expressed
      - RNA polymerase II
        
        Migrates Downstream
        
        Binds to Promoter
      - TATA Box
        
        Rich in A & T
        
        6-8 base pairs long
      - Promoter
        
        A controlling region involved in regulating the synthesis of mRNA
      - Structural Region
        
        Actually codes for Amino Acid Sequence
      - Mostly Quiescent
    - - Almost perfectly Universal
      - Degenerate
        
        Multiple codons exist for most Amino Acids
      - Codons
        
        Start Codon
        
        AUG
        
        Stop Codons
        
        UGA
        
        UAG
        
        UAA
        
        64 possible triplets
        
        Nucleotides in groups of three
    - - Histone proteins hold most Nuclear DNA in a resistant form
        
        Chromatin
        
        No enzyme can penetrate it
        
        DNA/protein structure
        
        Nucleosome
        
        DNA wrapped around Aggregates
      - Most DNA is stored in the Nucleus
        
        Protected by the Nuclear Envelope
      - DNA does not participate directly in protein synthesis
        
        Messenger RNA
        
        Can be replaced
        
        Carries info from DNA to protein synthesis
        
        aka mRNA
  - - - Termination of Translation
        
        Stop codon is pulled into the A channel
        
        Bond holding the protein to the P-channel tRNA is broken
      - Elongation of the Protein Chain
        
        A channel
        
        Empty, but numerous molecules enter at random
        
        A for Amino Acid
        
        P channel
        
        Subunit already containing initiator tRNA
        
        P for Protein
      - Initiation of Translation
        
        Frameshift Error
        
        Reading nucleotides in the wrong sets of 3
        
        Eukaryotic Initiation Factors
        
        Binds to ribosome small subunit
        
        aka eIFs
        
        Initiated by AUG
        
        Translation
        
        Synthesis of a protein molecule by ribosomes under the guidance of mRNA
    - - Parts:
        
        Amino Acid Attachment Site
        
        Amino Acid Activation
        
        Attaches correct amino acids
        
        Must be precise
        
        Anticodon
        
        3-nucleotide sequence
      - Codon cannot interact directly with Amino Acids
      - aka Transfer RNA
    - - 70S
        
        Smaller, lighter
        
        In plastids, mitchondria, & prokaryotes
      - 80S
        
        Relatively Large & Dense
        
        In Cytoplasm
      - Two subunits made up of:
        
        rRNA
        
        Ribosomal RNA
        
        Proteins
      - Small particles that read mRNA & construct proteins
  - - - Short RNA molecules
    - - TATA Boxes
      - Enhancers
      - Promoters
    - - aka Trans-acting Factors
        
        They come from somewhere else and bind to DNA
      - Must act as dimers
      - Proteins that bind to promoter or enhancer regions and activate genes
  - - - Cloned DNA is seperated into batches
      - Circles of DNA are extracted, then cloned
      - Organelles are extracted from a cell
    - - Open-Reading Frame
        
        Has no matching sequence
        
        Region appearing to have gene-like features
        
        aka ORF
      - Pyrosequencing Method
        
        Other enzymes release light when pyrophosphate is present
        
        DNA is added to a solution with all enzymes for replication
      - Chain Termination Method
        
        Free nucleotides are added
        
        Dideoxynucleotide can be added to growing DNA
        
        Cloned DNA is divided into 4 batches
        
        DNA is first cloned
    - - The Polymerase Chain Reaction
        
        Powerful technique for cloning
        
        Only enzymes are used
        
        aka PCR
      - Yeast Artificial Chromosomes
        
        Contains the essential parts of a Yeast Chromosome
        
        Replication Start Sites
        
        Centromere
        
        Telomeres
        
        aka YACs
      - Vectors
        
        aka Carriers
      - Plasmid
        
        Acts like a tiny bacterial chromosome
        
        Short, circular piece of DNA that occurs in bacteria
      - Method of placing DNA fragments into bacteria
    - - Physiological Studies
        
        Expression Profiling
        
        DNA Microarray
        
        Each type of cDNA is attached to many glass microscope slides
        
        Uses cDNAs to examin gene expression during development
        
        Complementary DNA
        
        Synthesized using Fluorescent Nucleotides
        
        Complementary to the exons of the gene
        
        cDNA
        
        Reverse Transcriptase
        
        A virus enzyme that synthesizes DNA
      - Evolutionary Studies
        
        Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
        
        Difftering fragment profiles of nonrelated species
        
        aka RFLP
        
        Restriction Map
    - - Recombinant DNA
        
        Method of repairing DNA
      - DNA Ligase
        
        DNA repair enzyme
      - Palindromes
        
        Read Forwards or Backwards
        
        Sequence recognized by restriction endonuleases
      - Recognizes and binds to a specific sequence of nucleotides
        
        Cleaves to DNA
      - Class of bacterial enzymes
    - - DNA Hybridization
        
        Used to measure the number of copies of a gene that occurs in a nucleus.
        
        Used to determine the relatedness of two types of DNA
        
        The reformation of double-stranded DNAs
        
        aka Reannealing
      - DNA Melting
        
        Produces a solution of single-stranded DNA molecules
        
        Seperation of the two strands of DNA
        
        aka DNA Denaturation
- - - - One strand of DNA Double Helix is Cut
        
        The Two Strands Seperate in a Short Region
        
        aka Replicon
        
        Free nucleotides diffuse into different regions
        
        Nuleotides pair with bases along each strand
        
        aka Ribonucleotides
        
        Polymerized into Primer RNA
        
        Substrates for DNA Polymerase
        
        Adds deoxyribonucleotides onto the end of Primer RNA
        
        Uses open DNA as a guide
        
        2 more items...
        
        Semiconservative Replication
    - - Nucleosome structure Remains Intact
  - - - Genes associated with Extremely Complex Crosses
    - - Multiple phenotype effects of one mutation that affects several different traits.
  - - - Inversion
        
        DNA is arranged backwards
      - Insertion
        
        Addition of Extra DNA
      - Deletion
        
        Piece of DNA is lost
      - Point Mutation
        
        A Single Base is converted
    - - Mutations occur in genes that code for repair enzymes
        
        Xeroderma Pigmentosum
      - Every cell cycle contains new mutations
      - Recognize and Remove Mutations
    - - Not passed to offspring
      - Might never result in an altered phenotype
      - Mutations in cells that never lead to sex cells
    - - Almost always harmful
        
        Natural selection eliminates harmful mutations
      - Depends on:
        
        It’s Extent
        
        It’s Position
        
        It’s Nature
    - - Transposable Elements
        
        Two Basic Forms:
        
        Transposons
        
        Picea abias
        
        58% of DNA in every nucleus is Transposon
        
        Carries genes that code for proteins
        
        May be longer
        
        Similar to Insertion Sequence
        
        Insertion Sequences
        
        Contain genes that code for enzymes involved in cutting and splicing
        
        Few thousand base pairs long
        
        Pieces of DNA that readily change positions
        
        Most useful cause of Insertion/Deletion Mutations
      - Insertion
        
        Foreign DNA may accidentally be included in the repair
        
        Can be caused by many methods
        
        Many enzymes cut and rejoin DNA as a repair process
      - Deletions
        
        Due to short regions of a self-complementary sequence
        
        One strand may form a small loop
        
        DNA Polymerase doesn’t read this
      - Mugaten
        
        Examples:
        
        Radiation
        
        X-Rays
        
        Ultraviolet Light
        
        Certain Chemicals
        
        Causes Mutations
  - - - Polyploid
        
        Plants with more than 2 sets of chromosomes
        
        Even ploidy level= fertile
        
        Odd ploidy level=sterile
      - Nondisjunction
        
        Changes in a chromosome number per nucleus in plants
      - Paralogs
        
        Recognized as originated from the wild-type allele
      - Gene Family
        
        Made up of Paralogs
    - - It’s presence can kill a plant
      - Presence can be difficult to detect
    - - Biparental Inheritance
        
        Alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to the progeny
        
        This applies to all genes in the nucleus
      - Uniparental Inheritance
        
        Zygote obtains all its genomes from the maternal parent
        
        Caused by sperm cell losing its cytoplasm
        
        aka Maternal Inheritance
      - Pollen Parent
      - Ovule Parent
  - - - Only a single character is analyzed
      - Mendel paid attention to Monohybrid crosses
      - Parental Generation
        
        Offspring
        
        aka F1
        
        aka First Filial Generation
        
        F2
        
        aka parents
      - Incomplete Dominance
        
        Neither Parental trait Dominates the other
    - - Selfing
        
        A plant’s own pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs
        
        Crossing with another plant with the same Genotype
        
        Not all Zygotes are identical Genotypically
        
        RR
        
        Rr
        
        rr
    - - Two effective Alleles
        
        Dominant
        
        RR
        
        Recessive
        
        rr
    - - Uses plants with Incomplete Dominance
      - Reveals Genotype
      - Pure-bred lines
        
        Homozygous Dominant
        
        Homozygous Reccessive
    - - aka Polymorphic
      - Gene may exist in many forms
  - - - Map Unit
        
        Each 1% of space between mutant alleles
        
        aka One Centimorgan
      - Parental Type Chromosomes
      - Recombinant Chromosomes
        
        Formed from
        
        Recombination of Alleles
        
        Crossing-Over of homologous chromosomes
      - Causes the many different heterozygote possibilities
      - 2 genes on the same Chromosome
    - - Independent assortment
        
        Can also occur if 2 genes are located far apart on the same chromosome
        
        The two act like seperate entities
        
        Crossing-Over occurs between them in Prophase I
    - - Considering 2 genes simutaneously soes not affect inheritance
      - The alleles of one gene move independently of the alleles of the other
- - - - Certain modifications improve efficiency
      - Large spreading or vining plant grows to several meters in length, and individual parts become self-suffecient
  - - - Two Basic Arrangements Occur:
        
        Indeterminate Inflorescences
        
        Lowest/outermost flowers open first
        
        Determinate Inflorescences
        
        Limited potential for growth
      - Collective visual signal to pollinators
      - Many flowers are grouped together
  - - - Indehiscent Fruits
        
        Don not break open and release seeds
      - Dehiscent Fruits
        
        Break open and release seeds
    - - Multiple Fruit
        
        Pineapples
        
        Individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
      - Aggregate Fruit
        
        Raspberries
        
        Seperate carpels of one gynoecium fuse during development
      - Simple Fruit
        
        Develops from a single ovary
        
        Most common
      - Accessory Fruit
        
        If any nonovarian tissue is present
        
        aka False Fruit
      - True Fruit
        
        Refer to fruits containing only ovarian tissue
  - - - Half-inferior Ovary
        
        Perigynous
      - Superior Ovary
        
        aka Hypogynous
      - Inferior Ovary
        
        Result if receptacle tissue grows upward around the ovary
        
        aka Epigynous
    - - Zygomorphy provides no selective advantage
      - Attracting pollinators is unnecessary
    - - Zygomorphic
        
        Bilaterally Symmetric
      - Actinomorphic
        
        aka Regular
        
        Radially Symmetric
      - Coevolution
    - - Dioecy
        
        Large number of combinations are possible
      - Nonessential Organs
        
        Sepals and Petals
      - Essential Organs
        
        Stamens and Carpels
        
        Produce critically important spores
    - - Compatibility Barriers
        
        Chemical reactions between pollen and carpels
        
        Inhibits self-pollination
    - - Pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different individual
  - - - Three layers:
        
        Endocarp
        
        Pericarp
        
        Innermost Layer
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Middle Layer
        
        Flesh
        
        Exocarp
        
        Skin/Peel
        
        Outer Layer
      - Ovary matures into Fruit
    - - Exalbuminous
        
        Endosperm is absent, or sparse at maturity
      - Albuminous Seed
        
        Mature seed where endosperm is rather abundant
      - Torpedo Stage:
        
        Hypocotyl
        
        The Root/Shoot Junction
        
        Epicotyl
        
        Embryonic Stem
        
        Radicle
        
        Embryonic Root
      - Cotyledons
      - Suspensor
        
        Pushes embryo deep into the endosperm
    - - Double Fertilization
        
        Both sperm and nuclei undergo fusions
      - Endosperm Nucleus
        
        Established by Karyogamy
        
        Triploid
        
        Three full sets of genes
      - Syngamy #
        
        Karyogamy
        
        Fusion of the nuclei
        
        Plasmogamy
        
        Fusion of the protplasts of the gametes
    - - Megagametophyte
        
        7 cells:
        
        1 Egg Apparatus
        
        1 Egg
        
        2 Synergids
        
        3 Antipodal Cells
        
        2 Polar Nuclei
        
        1 Central Cell
        
        Embyro Sac
        
        Multinucleate megagametophyte
      - Microgametophyte
        
        Pollen Tube
        
        Penetrates into the loose, open tissues of the stigma
        
        Produces small lens-shaped Generative Cell
        
        Produces large Vegetative Cell
        
        Develop from Microgametophytes #
    - - Complete Flowers
        
        Have all four appendage types
      - 4 Types of Appendages:
        
        Carpels
        
        Nucellus
        
        Central mass of parenchyma cells in ovule
        
        Three main parts:
        
        Ovary
        
        Contain Placentae
        
        Regions of tissues bearing Ovules
        
        1 more item...
        
        Where megaspores are produced
        
        Style
        
        Elevates stigma to a useful position
        
        Stigma
        
        Catches pollen grains
        
        Located at the highest level on the receptacle
        
        Make up Gynoecium
        
        Stamens
        
        Tapetum
        
        Nurse cells
        
        Two parts:
        
        Anther
        
        Pollon is produced
        
        Filament
        
        Stalk
        
        “Male” part
        
        Produce pollen
        
        Make up Androecium
        
        Above petals
        
        Petals
        
        “Leaf-like”
        
        Perianth
        
        Make up corolla
        
        Above sepals
        
        Sepals
        
        Thickest, toughest, waxiest
        
        Modified leaves that surround and enclose the other flower parts
        
        Lowermost and Outermost
      - Receptacle
        
        Where other flower parts are attached
        
        At very end of Axis
      - Pedicel
        
        Flower Stalk
    - - Alteration of Generations
        
        Heteromorphic Generations
        
        Generations do not resemble each other
        
        Life cycle with 2 generations
      - Gametophyte
        
        Two types of mammalian gametes:
        
        Megagametes
        
        Megagametophytes #
        
        Megaspores
        
        Large eggs that do not swim
        
        Microgametes
        
        Microgametophytes
        
        Microspores
        
        Small sperm cells that swim
        
        Entire new haploid plant
        
        Produced by spores
      - Sporophyte Phase
        
        Syngamy
        
        Produces diploid zygote
        
        Gametes fuse with other gametes
        
        aka Fertilization #
        
        Meiosis results in haploid spores
        
        Sporophytes are always diploid
      - Zygote
        
        Grows to become new diploid individual
        
        Fertilized egg
      - Gametes
        
        Either sperm or eggs
        
        Haploid sex cells
        
        Produced by meiosis
- - - - Starchy “tubers”
      - Yams
      - Has one family
    - - Septal Nectaries
        
        Open areas that secrete nectar
      - Septa
        
        Fused sides
      - Carpels fuse side-by-side
      - Large clade
    - - Contains many ornamental plants
        
        Calochortus
        
        Tulipa
        
        Lilium
      - “Petaloid” monocots
        
        Large, colorful flowers
      - Previously Large group with many highly derived families
    - - No transpiration
      - Often found in swamps or marshes
      - Contain many aquatic herbs
        
        Najas
        
        Hydrocharis
        
        Sagittaria
    - - Remain free
      - Rarely fuse together to form a tube
      - The perianth members
    - - Unique epicuticular wax
      - Four orders:
        
        Zinginerales
        
        Large, showy flowers
        
        Calathea
        
        Maranta
        
        Contains familiar houseplants
        
        Poales
        
        Wind pollinated
        
        Contains wheat, rye, corn, etc.
        
        Contains grass
        
        aka Family Poaceae
        
        Arecales
        
        Contains Palms
        
        aka Family Arecaceae
  - - - Pollen grains have a single germination pore
    - - Austrobaileyales
        
        Woody trees with bisexual flowers
      - Nymphaeaceae
        
        Water lilies
      - Amborellaceae
        
        Amborella trichopoda
        
        One species
  - - - Eudicot
        
        Vascular bundles occur in only one ring in the stem
        
        Two Cotyledon on each embryo
        
        More diverse
      - Monocot
        
        Vascular bundles are distributed throughout the stem
        
        Leaves have parallel veins
        
        Have one cotyledon on each embryo
    - - By Michael Simpson
    - - 3rd Edition
      - By WS Judd et al.
    - - By Dr. Arthur Cronquist
      - Most widely used Monograph in the 80’s & 90’s
  - - - In Japan
      - 125 million years ago
    - - Magnolia-type flower was relictual
        
        Generalized
      - Hypothesis developed by CE Bessey
  - - - Two orders:
        
        Campanulids
        
        aka Euasterids II
        
        Lamiids
        
        aka Euasterids I
      - Iridoid Compounds
        
        Occur rarely outside this group
      - 3 basic features:
        
        Stamens alternate with petals
        
        Few stamens
        
        Sympetalous flowers
      - Contains sunflowers, periwinkle, etc.
      - Most derived
    - - Roses are not typical
      - Two large Clades:
        
        Malvids
        
        Eurosids II
        
        Fabids
        
        aka Eurosids I
      - Great economic significance
      - Vitis
    - - Santalales
        
        Santalum
        
        Mostly parasitic
        
        Small order of highly modified plants
      - Caryophyllales
        
        Perisperm
        
        Surrounds developing embryo
        
        Nutritive tissue
        
        No Anthocyanin Pigments
        
        Betalains produced instead
        
        Aizoaceae
        
        Cacaceae
- - - - Bare Rock
      - Fences
      - Stone Walls
    - - Reproductive cells always surrounded by layer(s) of sterile cells
  - - - Meristem produces new sporangium tissues
      - No discrete sporangium
      - No seta
      - Foot embedded in gametophore tissue
      - Not similar to mosses or liverworts
    - - Numerous chambers
        
        Mucilage chambers
      - Winter annuals
      - Parenchymatous
      - May be shaped like a ribbon or a heart
      - Few protonema cells are produced before the gametophore phase is established.
  - - - Elaters
        
        Single, Elongate cells with spring-shaped walls
      - Contain:
        
        Calyptra-covered Sporangium
        
        Seta
        
        Extremely delicate
        
        Foot
      - Basic morphology is similar to mosses
      - Little variability
    - - Archegoniophore
        
        Occur on seperate plants in Marchantia
        
        Apex is a set of radiating fingers
        
        Stalked
      - Antheridiophore
        
        Umbrella-shaped outgrowth
      - Can be:
        
        Unisexual
        
        Producing both Antheridia & Archegonia
        
        Bisexual
      - Two Basic Groups:
        
        Thallose Liverworts
        
        Air Pores
        
        Not stomata
        
        Stratified bodies
        
        Body without roots, stems, or leaves
        
        Leafy Liverworts
        
        Gametophore greatly resembles that of the moss
        
        Arranged in three clear rows
        
        Thin leaves on slender stem
        
        Order Haplomitriales
        
        Order Jungermanniales
  - - - Several mechanisms compensate for the inability of mosses to retain water.
        
        Some mosses are tolerant of desiccation.
        
        Resistant to extreme temperatures
        
        Tortula ruralis
        
        Many species grow in permanantly moist areas.
      - Factors:
        
        Lack of Conducting Tissues
        
        Small Size
    - - Calyptra
        
        Layer of cells derived from the neck of the archegonium
        
        Covers the apex of the sporangium
      - Peristome Teeth
        
        Result of cell breakage
      - Operculum
        
        Apex of the sporangium differeniates as a caplike lid
      - Seta
        
        In all moss sporophytes
        
        Between foot and sporangium
      - Capsule
        
        Consists of an outer layer & inner column of sterile cells
        
        Simple Apical Sporangium
      - Foot
        
        Interface with the gametophore
        
        Absorbs sugars, minerals, and water
        
        Small, bulbous tissue
        
        Develops from a zygote of a moss & a basal cell
    - - Reproduction
        
        Archegonia
        
        Occur on the same gametophore in bisexual species
        
        Funaria
        
        Eggs occur in megagametangia
        
        Antheridia
        
        Sperms produced in microgametangia
        
        All mosses are oogamous
      - Development
        
        Protonema
        
        Resembles a filamentous green alga
        
        Cells undergo mitosis
        
        Entire network of chlorophyllous cells
      - Water Transport
        
        Rhizoids
        
        Lack chloroplasts
        
        Do not absorb water or minerals
        
        Anchor the stem
        
        Penetrate the surface of the substrate
        
        Small-multicellular Trichome-like structures
        
        At the base of the stem
        
        Leptoids
        
        Lack nuclei at maturity
        
        Relatively prominent interconnections with adjacent cells
        
        Elongate
        
        Cells resembling sieve cells
        
        Hydroids
        
        In innermost cortex
        
        Cells that conduct water and dissolved minerals
      - Morphology
        
        Gametophores
        
        One cell thick
        
        Most have a midrib
        
        Aligned in 3 rows while young
        
        Most grow from an Apical Meristem that contains a prominent apical cell.
        
        More open and loose
        
        Platygyrium
        
        Climacium
        
        Anacolia
        
        Grow closely together, forming dense mounds
        
        Pohlia
        
        Grimmia
        
        Leafy stems
  - - - Hornworts
    - - Mosses
    - - Liverworts
- - - - Presence/Absence drastically affects the structure of their community
    - - Traces how energy flows throught the community
    - - Network of numerous interrelationships
    - - The direct line of consumption
  - - - Earth’s climate began to cool 50 million years ago
      - Diversity varies with Latitude
        
        Northern areas have lower diversity
    - - Species Abundance Distribution
        
        Plot of the number of species in each abundance class
      - Means of Measuring Diversity at Specific Scales
        
        Gamma Diversity
        
        Number of species within a region
        
        Beta Diversity
        
        Compares differences of several small sites within a large region
        
        Alpha Diversity
        
        Number of Species that occur in a small, local site
        
        Proposed by Robert Whittaker
      - Species-Area Relationship
      - Scale
        
        Larger Areas have Larger Populations
        
        Large areas are more diverse than smaller ones
  - - - Plants are not actually competing for and using, a resource
    - - Resource
        
        Substance that can lead to increased growth rates
      - Invasive Species
        
        Populates rapidly with no predator
      - Interference Competition
        
        Pteridium aquilinum
        
        One organism restricts another’s access to resources
      - Exploitation Competition
        
        Resource competition occurs when organisms actually consume a shared resource
    - - Optimal Diet Model
        
        The probability that a particular plant will be eaten depends partially on the abundance of other plants that are easy to handle and have higher value
        
        Some prey items will always be eaten if they are encountered, others will never be eaten.
        
        The high-yield prey become sufficiently scarce, and the predator would broaden its diet
        
        Predators should prefer the prey that yields the most energy per unit of handling time.
      - Optimal Foraging Theory
        
        Examine interactions between these factors to understand why herbavores ignore some plants.
    - - Fixed Quota Harvesting
        
        Game hunters are allowed to harvest a only particular amount.
      - Fixed Effort Harvesting
        
        Population health is determined by the amount of individuals that can be harvested with a particular amount of effort.
      - Maximum Sustained Yield
        
        Population remains stable
      - Paradox of Enrichment
        
        Predator overexploit of the prey and both are lost
      - Rosenzeig-MacArthur model
        
        Adds more factors that affect both predators and prey in real communities
      - Zero Growth Isocline
        
        Line indicating population stability
      - Lotka-Volterra model
        
        dP/dt=faNP-qP
        
        q=the predator’s per capita mortality rate
        
        f=constant indicating the predator’s efficiency at converting the prey it has eaten into new predators
        
        dP/dt=rate of change with time of the predator population
        
        Net range of Change of Predator numbers
        
        dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        dN/dt
        
        Rate of change with time of the prey population
        
        P= number of predator individuals present
        
        a= predator’s per capita attack rate
        
        N= individuals of prey species in the community
        
        r= intrinsic rate of increase for the prey species
        
        The net rate of change in prey numbers
      - Functional Response
        
        Handling Time
        
        Amount of time needed to actually consume prey
        
        Feeding Rate
        
        Prey-Dependent
        
        Predator’s functional response is dependent on prey density
        
        How quickly a predator finds a new prey individual
  - - - Organisms become established on newly created substrates
    - - Creates a less severe environment for young seedlings
    - - One organism helps another without recieving any benefit
    - - Both interacting organisms benefit
      - aka Mutualistic Relationship
  - - - aka Assisted Migration
        
        Animals are captured in one area and released in a new area
    - - One that survives by colonizing new patches
    - - Low-Quality patch
    - - High-Quality patch
    - - 4 common assumptions
        
        Populations within individual patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
        
        Empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
        
        Some patches are occupied by the species whereas other suitable patches are not.
        
        A region of the environment is composed of many discrete patches in which the species can live
      - Several connected local populations
- - - - Symplesiomorphies
    - - aka Ferns and Fern Allies
  - - - Enations
        
        Increased photosynthetic surface area of the plants
        
        Thin scales
        
        Outgrowths of zosterophyllophytes
      - Zosterophyllum
        
        Similar to rhyniophytes
        
        Small herbs without secondary growth
        
        Prinicpal genus
    - - Xylem Structure of Early Vascular Plants
        
        Siphonostele
        
        Occurs in ferns & seed plants
        
        Pith is present in the center
        
        Exarch Protostele
        
        Metaxylem located in the center of the xylem mass and protoxylem on the edges as several groups next to the phloem.
        
        Endarch Protostele
        
        Protoxylem is located in the center and metaxylem differentiates on the outer edge of the xylem mass.
        
        Protostele
        
        Center is a solid mass of xylem with no pith
      - Aglaophyton
      - Rhynia
      - Equal Dichotomous Branching
        
        Both branches are equal size and vigor
      - Cooksonia
        
        Homosporous
        
        Cortex of parenchyma
        
        Had epidermis with a cuticle
        
        Genus of extinct plants
  - - - Isoetes
        
        Has CAM
        
        Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
        
        Heterosporus
        
        Quillworts
      - Selaginella
        
        Ligule
        
        Small flap of tissues of leaves
        
        Heterosporous
        
        Less common
      - Lycopodium
        
        Homosporous
        
        Fairly common in forest
        
        “Club moss”
        
        “Ground pine”
    - - Necessary precondition for the evolution of seeds
      - Many remain homosporous
      - Strobili
        
        Lycophytes sporangia are clustered together
      - Cones
    - - Microphylls
        
        Lycophyta
      - Baragwanathia
        
        Genera of earliest lycophytes
      - Drepanophycus
  - - - Psilotum and Tmesipteris
        
        Tmesipteris
        
        Limited to Oceania
        
        Psilotum
        
        Occurs in tropical and subtropical regions
        
        Lost capacity to make roots and leaves
        
        Highly derived, Highly simplified ferns
        
        Similar to Rhynia and Aglaophyton
        
        Placed together until mid 70’s
      - Eusporangia and Leptosporangia
        
        Leptosporangia
        
        Derived trait occuring only in the clade Leptosporangiatae
        
        Initiated when a single surface cell divides preiclinally and forms a small outward protrusion
        
        Eusporangium
        
        Resulting in a small multilayered plate of cells
        
        Initiated when several surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
      - Heterosporous
        
        Salviniaceae
        
        Marsileaceae
      - Most are homosporous
      - Sori
        
        Clusters of sporangia, where meiosis occurs
        
        On underside of leaf
        
        (Sorus, singular)
      - Leaf Gap
        
        Small segment of the vascular cylinder as just parenchyma
      - Leaf Trace
        
        Leaf Trace
        
        Diverges from the siphonostele
      - Leptosporangiate Ferns
        
        More than 12,000 species in Monilophytes
    - - Examples:
        
        Scouring Rushes
        
        Horsetails
      - Division Arthrophyta
    - - Euphyllophytes
        
        Two sister clades:
        
        Lignophytes
        
        Woody plants
        
        Monilophytes
        
        Ophioglossales
        
        Marattiales
        
        Leptosporangiatae
        
        United by 3 synapomorphies:
        
        They have a 30-kilobase inversion in the large single-copy region of their plastid DNA
        
        They have megaphylls
        
        Their roots have exarch xylem
    - - Monopodial Growth
        
        True roots
        
        True leaves
        
        Lateral branches
        
        Main trunk
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        Megaphyllous plants form a monophyletic clade
      - Sporophyll
        
        Sporangium-bearing, leaf-like structure
      - Three types of homoplasic structures
        
        Megapyhylls
        
        Telome Theory
        
        Telomes
        
        Ultimate twigs of the last dichotomy
        
        Summary of mesophyll evolution
        
        Leaves that evolved from branch systems and are present in:
        
        Equisetophytes
        
        Ferns
        
        Seed Plants
        
        Enations of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
        
        Leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
    - - Pseudomonopodial Branching
        
        Single main trunk
      - Overtopping
        
        Trimerophytes had an unequal branching where one stem is more vigorous.
      - Division Trinerophytophyta
        
        Pertica
        
        Psilophyton
        
        Trimerophyton
        
        Proposed in 1968
- - - - Pleiotropic effects may operate
      - Population is affected by multiple negative factors
    - - Occur in newly opened habitats
      - Cannot occur if survival is universal
      - Cannot occur if the population is genetically identical
    - - Factors that are Not Part of Natural Selection
        
        Voluntary Decision Making
        
        Planning
        
        Intention
        
        Purpose
      - Natural Selection
        
        Two Neccessary Conditions
        
        Progeny must differ from each other in their Types of Alleles
        
        The population must produce more offspring than can possibly grow and survive to maturity in that habitat.
        
        Survival of the Fittest
        
        Most significant factor causing gene pool mutations
      - Artificial Selection
        
        Carried out in conjunction with Artificial Mutation
        
        Selectively Breeding of crops and domestic animals
        
        Humans purposefully change the allele frequency of a Gene Pool
      - Accidents
        
        Examples:
        
        Floods, Hailstorms, Droughts
        
        Volcanic Eruption
        
        Collision of a Large Meteorite
        
        Organism cannot adapt
      - Mutation
        
        New Alleles increase
        
        Existing alleles decrease in frequency
        
        Occur continually
  - - - At what stage did life come into being?
      - Theory delineates no absolute demarcation between living and nonliving things
    - - Buildup of Atmospheric Oxygen
        
        Oxygen transformed to Ozone
      - Liberation caused by evolution of chlorophyll a and photosynthesis
        
        It created conditions that selected for the evolution of aerobic resperation
        
        It allowed the world to rust
    - - Aggregates would have been complete heterotrophs
    - - First aggregates formed at basically random
      - Aggregation of chemical components into masses that had some organization and metabolism
    - - Monomers present had to polymerize if life were to arise
    - - Writings of Oparin & Haldane
        
        1st experimental tests of the chemosynthetic hypothesis
    - - Time Available for the Origin of Life
        
        Lack of free molecular oxygen creates no limits
      - Energy Sources
        
        Volcanic Lightning.
        
        Electricity
        
        Heat
        
        Radiation
      - Chemicals Present in the Atmosphere
        
        Second Atmosphere
        
        Reducing Atmosphere
        
        Due to the lack of molecular oxygen and the presence of powerful reducing agents
        
        Early second atmosphere
        
        Produces by release of gases from the rock matrix
  - - - Example:
        
        Cacti and Euphorbias
      - Two unrelated species evolve to remeble each other strongly
    - - Adaptive Radiation
        
        Genetic Drift
        
        The gene pool changes rapidly and erratically
        
        Founder Individual
        
        All offspring greatly resemble it
        
        First individual
        
        Usually occurs when a species enters a new habitat
        
        Species rapidly diverge into many new species over a very short time period
      - Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Postzygotic Internal Isolation Barriers
        
        Hybrid Inviability
        
        Embryo dies early in development
        
        Hybrid Sterility
        
        Two populations occasionally interbreed and produce viable, yet sterile, seeds
        
        Two subpopulations are considered seperate species
        
        Sympatric Speciation
        
        Two groups grow together, but become reproductively isolated
        
        Example:
        
        Pollinator may not recognize a different colored flower.
        
        A biological phenomenon preventing successful gene flow
      - Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        If Speciation results:
        
        Allopatric
        
        aka Geographic Speciation
        
        A physical, nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes.
    - - Vegetative Propagation
        
        Species produce small, mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively
      - Seed Dispersal
        
        Migratory animals help disperse seeds
        
        Can be carried by wind, floods, and stream flow
      - Pollen Transfer
        
        Allele movement can be rapid
        
        Pollen is carried long distances by wind
        
        Pollen grains each carry one full Haploid Genome
  - - - Group of Asters in Hawaii
        
        New species arises every 500,000 years
    - - Ferns
      - Equisetum
      - Lycopods
- - - - Organisms Other Than Plants
        
        Predation
        
        One Species Benefits, One Species Harmed
        
        Commensal Relationships
        
        Common between plants and animals
        
        One Species Benefits, One Species is Unaffected
        
        Examples:
        
        Prokaryotes
        
        Fungi
        
        Animals
      - Other Plant Species
        
        Ecotypes
        
        Transplant Experiments
        
        Subpopulations
        
        Niche
        
        Source of Competition #
        
        Species is adapted to particular set of conditions
        
        Competition
        
        Long-term consequences include Species Modification
        
        Competitive Exclusion
        
        Less adapted species is excluded from the ecosystem
        
        Caused by limited supply of shared resources
        
        Disadvantageous
        
        Mutualism
        
        Interaction Beneficial for Both Organisms
      - The Plant Itself
        
        Dryas
        
        Colonize exposed Moraines
        
        Habitat Modification
        
        Neutral
        
        Detrimental
        
        Beneficial
    - - Disturbance
        
        Affect Biotic Factors directly
        
        Produce significant, rapid Ecosystem Changes
        
        Examples:
        
        Floods
        
        Avalanches
        
        Landslides
        
        Fires
        
        Component in many dry ecosystems
      - Latitude and Altitude
        
        High Altitudes are similar to High Latitudes
        
        Poor Soil
        
        High Winds
        
        Arctic & Antarctic
        
        Mid-Summer & Mid-Winter days are 24 hours long
        
        Equator
        
        Plants cannot measure season by photoperiod
        
        No seasonal variation
        
        All days are 12 hours long
      - Soil Factors
        
        C Horizon
        
        Composed of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        B Horizon
        
        Materials from A Horizon accumulate
        
        Zone of Deposition
        
        A Horizon
        
        Consists of litter and debris
        
        Zone of Leaching
        
        Uppermost
        
        Pioneers
        
        Associated with nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes
        
        Tolerate severe conditions
        
        First plants that invade a new soil
        
        Formed by breakdown of rock
      - Climate
        
        Tolerance Range
        
        Vary between species
        
        Between the low and high extremes
        
        Components:
        
        Winds
        
        Relative Humidity
        
        Rainfall
        
        Temperature
        
        Critically important to all organisms
  - - - K-Selection
        
        Examples:
        
        Bristle-Cone Pines
        
        Douglas firs
        
        Redwoods
        
        Almost every possible site is filled
      - r-Selection
        
        Typically Annuals or Small Shrubby Perennials
        
        Mutations that increase r are selectively advantageous
        
        Usually produced by disturbances
    - - Carrying Capacity
        
        Limited number of individuals who can live in a particular ecosystem.
      - Factors affecting the Possible Rate of Population Growth
        
        Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase
        
        Number of offspring produced by an Individual
        
        aka Biotic Potential
        
        Generation Time
        
        Length of time from an individual’s birth to it’s offspring’s birth
      - Relative proportion of young, middle-aged, and old individuals
    - - Local Geographic Distribution
        
        Uniform Distribution
        
        Not common in Nature
        
        Individuals are evenly spaced
        
        Occur in Orchards and Tree Plantation
        
        Clumped Distribution
        
        Seeds often fall near the plant
        
        Spacing between plants is not average
        
        Random Distribution
        
        No predictive value
        
        No obvious pattern to the position of individuals
      - Boundaries of the Geographic Range
        
        Limiting Factor
        
        Can be any factor in the ecosystem
        
        Applies to all aspects of a plant’s interaction with its habitat
        
        Determines the Health of the Plant
  - - - Energy Flow & Carbon Flow
        
        Passed through the levels
      - Levels:
        
        Decomposers
        
        Break down remains of all types of organisms
        
        Secondary Consumer
        
        Primary Consumer
        
        aka Secondary Producers
        
        Primary Producer
        
        First step in a food web
      - Photosynthesis accounts for almost all energy input
      - Basically feeding levels
    - - Depends on the climate
      - Refers to the number and diversity of species that coexist in an ecosystem
    - - Changes in an ecosystem over time
    - - Life Forms
        
        Classified by means by which the plant survives stressful seasons
        
        Defined by C. Raunkiaer in 1934