Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

(Energy Metabolism Respiration (Types of Respiration (Pentose Phosphate…

- - - - liberated to O2
        
        respiratory quotient
    - - theoretical calculation
        
        amount of oxygen
        
        consumed
        
        respiratory substrate
    - - valuable tool
        
        studying light
        
        photosynthesis
  - - - fermenation
        
        methyl alcohol
        
        wood alcohol
        
        isopropyl alcohol
        
        rubbing alcohol
        
        ethyl alcohol
        
        BAC
        
        .08% or higher
        
        illegal to drive
        
        .4%
        
        fatal
        
        .15%
        
        people are drunk
        
        trouble walking
        
        .02%
        
        interfere with
        
        may cause
        
        1 more item...
        
        reaction time
        
        coordination
        
        passes
        
        mother
        
        infant
        
        through placenta
        
        1 more item...
        
        consuming
        
        harmful
        
        drunk driving
        
        5th cause of :skull_and_crossbones:
        
        beneficial
        
        lowers risk of :hearts: disease
        
        depressant
    - - distillation
        
        rum
        
        fermented molasses
        
        tequila
        
        agave plants
        
        store as inulin
        
        store carbohydrates
        
        not as starch
        
        brandy
        
        grape wine
        
        grain based fermentations
        
        produce
        
        gin
        
        malted
        
        rye
        
        corn
        
        barley
        
        vodka
        
        carbohydrates
        
        sugar beets
        
        potatoes
        
        corn
        
        wheat
        
        pure
        
        ethanol and water
        
        whiskeys
        
        use 80% corn
        
        different liquids
        
        boil differently
        
        heat
        
        evaporation
        
        alcohol and water
      - ethanol content
        
        above 20%
        
        toxic to yeast
        
        yeast dies
    - - age
        
        in barrels
        
        red wine
        
        5 years
        
        white wine
        
        12-18 months
      - pasteurization
        
        kill off yeast
      - acrhaeologists
        
        look for
        
        tartaric acid crystals
        
        determine time period
      - grapes
        
        20-30% sugar
        
        crushed
        
        obtain juice
      - produced in 6000 BCE
        
        60 different grapes
      - fermentation
        
        grape juice
        
        rich in sugars
    - - fermentation
        
        rice
        
        corn
        
        wheat
        
        barley
        
        most common :beer:
        
        starchy grains
  - - - ATP production
        
        acetyl Co A
        
        enters citric acid cycle
        
        depends on length
    - - yields
        
        two NADPH
        
        per glucose-6-phosphate
    - - two NADHs
        
        transported
        
        mitochondria
    - - two ATP
  - - - seeds
        
        dormant
        
        no respiration
      - cells
        
        respiration
        
        triggered by
        
        endogenous hormones
        
        active metabolism
        
        spongy mesophyll
        
        collenchyma
        
        lower respiration
        
        lower respiration
        
        glands
        
        protein or epidermal cells
        
        secrete waxes
        
        high aerobic respiration
    - - oxygen availability
        
        more variable for roots
        
        oxygen owing to respiration
        
        soil animals
        
        protists
        
        bacteria
        
        fungi
        
        roots
      - chlorophyllous
        
        daytime
        
        produces oxygen
        
        respiration
        
        night
        
        no oxygen
    - - shoots
        
        great change of temp
        
        more than 20 degree C
  - - - RuBP carboxylase
        
        adds oxygen
        
        ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
        
        resulting in
        
        one phospoglycolate
        
        3-phospoglycerate
    - - fatty acids
        
        broken down
        
        acetyl Co-A
        
        B-oxidation
        
        microbodies
        
        glyoxysomes
        
        cytosol
        
        glyoxysomes
    - - produces NADPH
      - occurs in plastids
        
        supplies erythrose-4-phosphate to
        
        tryptophan
        
        phenylalanine
        
        tyrosine
      - transforms glucose to
        
        ribose
        
        erythrose
        
        starting material for compounds
        
        anthocyanin pigments
        
        secondary plant walls
        
        sclereids
        
        fibers
        
        wood
        
        lignin pigments
      - phosphorylated five-carbon sugars
    - - AKA thermogenic respiration
      - heat generating plants
        
        alternate electron carriers
        
        present in mitochondria
        
        no carbon monoxide
        
        no azide
        
        no cyanide
      - muscles
        
        contract and relax
        
        break down ATP
        
        release stored energy
    - - needs oxygen
        
        Electron Transport Chain
        
        28 ATP
        
        Citric Acid Cycle
        
        6 NADH, 2 ATP, 1 FADH2
        
        Glycolysis
        
        in cytosol
        
        2 ATPs and 2 NADH
        
        makes 2 pyruvate
    - - Glucose broke down
        
        Glycolysis
        
        2 ATPS and 2 NADH
        
        makes pyruvate
      - without oxygen
- - - - very common in desert regions
  - - - southeast Asia, tropical Africa, and Amazon Basin
- - - - ovuliferous scale
        
        microscopic axillary bud and megasporophylls are fused laterally
      - each bract has axillary bud
        
        bud bears megasporophylls
      - short axis bear leaves
  - - - undergo meiosis
        
        eventually develop into gametophyte
        
        creates four cells
- - - - holding area
        
        space at top of megasporangium
    - - hole in integument
        
        permits sperm cells to swim to eggs
    - - layer of tissue
        
        projects upward
  - - - have siphonostele
    - - secondary phloem
      - up to 8.4m tall
- - - - the reason was due to three-ribbed protostele
- - - - causes mutations
  - - - cells that never lead to sex cells
- - - - filial genreration
        
        interbred offspring
    - - filial generation
        
        parent offspring
    - - parents of plants
    - - two identical alleles on one gene
    - - two different type of alleles on one gene
  - - - a trait that is week
    - - a trait that is stronger than a recessive gene
  - - - test to predict genotype of breeding experiment
      - types of one gamete
    - - when a plant fertilizes its own egg
- - - - alleles move independently
  - - - prophase 1
  - - - last two chromosomes
    - - first two chromosomes
- - - - two strands seperate
        
        form a small bubble
  - - - creates forked appearance
- - - - effects phenotype
- - - - equal allels transmitted to progeny
    - - obtains placid and mitochondrion genomes
- - - - conducting up and down root system
- - - - aerenchymatous cork
        
        diffusion pathway for oxygen
  - - - phloem between vascular cambium and innermost cork cambium
    - - tissues outside innermost cork cambium
    - - cork cambium, layers of cork cell, phelloderm
    - - layer of parenchyma
    - - outer cell
      - aka phellem cell
    - - cork cambium
        
        means new cambium
- - - - increase in width and addition of adventitious roots
        
        palm trees
  - - - secondary vascular bundles
        
        narrow cells that differentiate
    - - Bauhinia
        
        two sectors of cambium are very active
    - - located between two bands of xylem
    - - Ipomoea batatas
      - anomalous method of secondary growth
    - - produce secondary bodies
- - - - contains gelatinous fibers
  - - - lighter, moister outer region
    - - dark wood
  - - - vessels restricted to early wood
    - - vessels located throughout growth ring
    - - rings in truck of tree
        
        can show age and growth of year
    - - one year growth
    - - lower proportion of wide vessels
      - summer wood
    - - high proportion of wide vessels
      - spring wood
  - - - from conifers
      - no fibers
      - sometimes much harder than hardwood
    - - all basal angiosperm and eudicots
    - - develops from ray initials
    - - derived from fusiform initials
    - - origin and arrangement of cells
    - - contains
        
        parenchyma
        
        sclereids
        
        fibers
        
        vessel elements
        
        tracheids
- - - - occur in regular horizontal rows
    - - arranged in short vertical rows
        
        one cell wide
    - - without any horizontal pattern
    - - irregularly
  - - - mostly just storage
    - - one daughter cell strays back to become cambium ray initial
  - - - produces two elongate cells
      - longitudinal cell division
    - - divide longitudinal
      - without, cells would be stretched
  - - - connects on each side of cambium
    - - never undergo cell cycle arrest
      - old term for bundle
    - - produce secondary plant body
- - - - under pressure
        
        precipitates into a flocculent mass
  - - - P-protein mass is too big to pass through
    - - fine network adjacent to plasma membrane
  - - - transported by phloem
  - - - loads phloem
- - - - soil particles
      - membranes
      - cell walls
- - - - the intercellular space
      - the cell wall
  - - - one continuous mass
  - - - walls are smooth
    - - numerous finger-like outgrowths
  - - - open right at sunlight
      - night
        
        guard cells are shrunken
        
        stomata are closed
- - - - water is lossed through cuticle
        
        by being hydrophobic
        
        allowing very little water loss
    - - water loss
        
        warm air can have a negative water potential
    - - most widely accepted model
        
        stomatal pores are open
        
        apoplastic space of spongy mesophyll
        
        are filled with
        
        moisture-saturated air
  - - - force acting on one molecule
    - - molecules interact with many substances
- - - - conservation biology
        
        goal of preserving endangered species
- - - - pollinators and the plants they pollinate
- - - - any substance or factor that can lead to increasesd growth rates
    - - when another species is growing with a competitor present
    - - one organism restricts another organsm's access to resources
    - - when the organisms consume shared resources
        
        making it less avable for other organisms
  - - - makes four predictions
        
        fourth is the probability that a particular plant will be eaten
        
        third is some prey will always be eaten when approached
        
        second is the high yield prey become sufficiently scarce
        
        first predators choose which prey yields more energy
    - - such as a bee picking a specific type of flower
    - - examine interactions between factors
        
        attempts to understand herbivores
  - - - fisherman or hunters are allowed to harvest a certain amount of certain animals
    - - population health is determined by amount of fish or deer being harvested with an ammount of effort
    - - harvest enough species to keep population density at a certain point
    - - predator-prey interaction
        
        becomes unstoppable
        
        can wipe out predator
        
        when there is more prey than predator
      - important factor in loss of species
        
        occurs when habitat is improved
    - - illustrates the effect of prey density on predator populations
    - - there is an equation to figure this out
        
        N=q/fa
      - predator response is dependent on prey density
    - - amount of time needed to consume prey
- - - - north or south cordinants
  - - - plot the number of species in abundance class
    - - relationship between area and species richness
    - - community diversity that is being studied
        
        common observation
- - - - have columella as in mosses
      - are multicellular when ready to be released
    - - above the foot
        
        a meristem continously produces new sporangium tissues
  - - - young plants
        
        mucilage chambers
        
        become invaded
        
        by Nostoc cyanobacteria
        
        recieve nitrogen compounds
- - - - have alternation of heteromorphic generations
  - - - when sporangium open, the elaters uncoil
      - single, elongate cells
  - - - arranged as aerenhyma with large chambers
        
        air pores
        
        not stomata
      - stratified and much bigger
      - body wihtout roots, stem, or leaves
    - - thallose liverworts
        
        resemble flat and ribbon like
      - leafy liverworts
        
        moss
        
        thin leaves on slender stem
- - - - layer of cells derived from the neck of the archegonium
    - - one or two rows of complex teeth
    - - simple apical sporangium
    - - foot
        
        located at the bottom
        
        small, bulbous tissue
  - - - archegonia
        
        eggs occur in megagametangia
      - antheridia
        
        sperm produced in microgametangia
    - - protonema
        
        entire network
        
        cell undergoes mitosis
    - - rhizoids
        
        base of stem
        
        small, multinuclear trichome-like structures
      - leptoids
        
        cells that resemble sieve cells
      - hydroids
        
        innermost cortex composed of cells
    - - plants are more open and loose
    - - gametophores
        
        leafy stems
    - - ubiquitous
- - - - bird-of-paradise
      - banana
      - gingers
      - canna lilies
      - calathea
      - maranta
  - - - such as grass farm crops
  - - - 3500 species
  - - - open areas secrete nectar
        
        septa nectaries
      - have fused sides called
        
        septa
  - - - large colorful flowers
  - - - some plants submurged in seawater and some only halfway
      - sea grass
- - - - two cotyledons
        
        reticulate venationg in the leaves
    - - one cotyledon on each embryo
        
        leaves are elongated and strap shaped
- - - - lamiiids and campanulids
    - - only occur rarely outside this group
  - - - malvids and fabids
        
        together contatin more than 100 families
  - - - small order of parasitic plants
    - - form a nutritive tissue called perisperm
      - other flowering plants
        
        anthocyanin pigments
      - old group is known as core caryophyllales
- - - - have not preserved all ancestral features
    - - water lillies
        
        must submurged underwater
    - - small trees in forests
- - - - generalized
        
        it has all of the parts
      - magnolia-type
        
        relictual
- - - - fleshy
        
        eaten during the natural seed distribution process
      - dry
        
        indehiscent fruits
        
        don't break open and release seeds
        
        dehiscent fruits
        
        break open and release seeds
        
        not eaten by natural seed-distributing animals
  - - - individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
    - - seperate carpels on one gynoecium fuse
    - - most common kind
    - - any nonovarian tissue present
    - - fruits containing ovarian tissue
- - - - partially buried ovaries
    - - ovary is above other flower parts
    - - receptacle tissue grows upward around ovary
  - - - flowers are bilaterally symmetrical
    - - flower becoming adaptive for insect
  - - - sepals and petals do not produce spores
    - - flower has both
    - - flowers that lack either or both essential organs
    - - produce crittcally important spores
      - latter two organs
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels
- - - - composed of one, two, or all three layers
    - - innermost layer
    - - middle layer
    - - outer layer
    - - ovary matures
  - - - root/shoot junction
    - - embryonic root
      - short axis
    - - embryonic stem
    - - two primordia
    - - pushes embryo deep into endosperm
  - - - the process of both sperm and nuclei undergoing fusions
    - - triploid
        
        containing three full sets of genes
    - - fusion of the nuclei
    - - fusion of the protoplasts of gametes
      - syngamy of sperm and egg
  - - - produce seven cells
        
        one large central cell with two polar nuclei
        
        three small antipodal cells
        
        egg apparatus consisting of two synergids
      - embryo sac
        
        term for multinucleate megagametophyte
    - - polle tube
        
        penetrates into tissues of stigma
      - divides mitotically
        
        generative cell
        
        vegatative cell
  - - - three main parts
        
        ovary
        
        megaspores are produced
        
        style
        
        elevates the stigma
        
        stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
      - constitute the gynoecium
    - - two parts
        
        anther
        
        pollen production
        
        filament
        
        stalk
      - known as androecium
      - above the petals
    - - together make corolla
      - above the sepals
    - - calyx
        
        all sepals together
      - lowermost and outermost of the four floral appendages
    - - flower stalk
  - - - megaspores
      - microspores
      - two types of spores is known as heterospory
    - - megagametophyte
        
        female
      - microgametophyte
        
        male
      - the plant that produces gametes
      - haploid plant
    - - one phase of the plant life cycle
      - always diploid
    - - fertilized egg
    - - sperm or egg
- - - - lowest or outermost flowers
    - - limited potential for growth
- - - - formed where flowers would be
- - - - improves conservation of water
  - - - as CO2 drops
        
        PEP binds faster
      - high affinity for CO2
      - mesopyll cells
    - - oxygen concentration is low
      - CO2 is high
    - - energy wasting process
        
        phosphoglycolate broken down
        
        two molecules of CO2
    - - water loss for each carbon dioxide
  - - - retains water
    - - no entry of carbon dioxide
        
        water loss
  - - - packed together
        
        water loss reduced
  - - - duration
        
        the duration of sunlight
        
        hours of light in a day
      - quantity
        
        quantity of light
        
        light intensity or brightness
      - quality
        
        quality of sunlight
        
        colors or wavelengths
- - - - survive on carbohydrates
      - flowers
      - wood
      - roots
    - - can use as construction material
      - respire them
        
        prokaryotes
        
        fungi
        
        parasitic plants
        
        animals
  - - - stems
      - chlorophyll leaves
    - - assimilate small inorganic molecules
  - - - using energy
        
        into living system
  - - - animals
      - plants
      - fungi
      - protists
      - prokaryotes
- - - - long-term
        
        starch
        
        too large to be transported
        
        does not absorb water
      - intermediate-term
        
        store large quantities
        
        monosaccharides or disaccharides
      - short term
        
        ATP and NADPH
        
        used within the cell
  - - - pathways of polysaccharides
        
        storage forms
        
        of energy and carbon
    - - constructive metabolism
        
        consists of anabolic reactions
  - - - photosynthetic
        
        transfer absorbed light
      - pigment
        
        material that has distinctive color
      - most materials
        
        absorb certain wavelengths
    - - small segment
        
        electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        photons
        
        set of waves
        
        quanta
        
        set of particles
        
        encompasses
        
        radio waves
        
        microwaves
        
        infrared light
        
        ultraviolet light
        
        x-rays
        
        gamma rays
- - - - loosely associated
        
        with chloroplast
        
        move short distance
        
        doesn't travel far
      - small protein
        
        carries electrons
        
        on metal atom
        
        copper
    - - long hydrocarbon tail
        
        hydrophobic
        
        dissolve in lipid component
      - pick up two electrons
        
        bind two protons
      - transport electrons
        
        short distances
    - - intrinsic membrane proteins
        
        chloroplast's thylakoid membranes
        
        cannot be remmoved
        
        without destroying membrane
      - small proteins
        
        contain cofactor
        
        holds iron atom
  - - - accept or donate electrons
    - - place electrons on molecules
    - - oxidize material
    - - reduces positive charge
        
        contain hydrogen
    - - increases positive charge
    - - addition of atom
    - - covalent bonds
        
        contain oxygen
    - - atom can't carry
        
        many electrons
    - - 21% oxygen
        
        compounds
        
        found in oxidized form
  - - - ADP
        
        oxidative phosphorylation
        
        last stage of respiration
        
        occurs in distinct site
        
        captures energy
        
        substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        high-energy phospate groups
        
        force phosphate
        
        onto ADP
        
        make ATP
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        occurs only in chloroplasts
        
        nonchlorophyllous plant tissues
        
        cannot perform photophosphorylation
        
        lack necessary pigments
        
        light energy
      - ATP
        
        tiny fraction
        
        plant body
        
        molecule recycled
        
        ATP converted to ADP
        
        by metabolic reactions
      - energized pigments
        
        large molecules
        
        not very mobile
        
        too energetic
        
        react with everything
        
        only two chemical reactions
      - light to chemical energy
- - - - cells closest to metaxylem
    - - exterior cells
    - - develop
        
        largest tracheary elements
    - - first xylemt to appear
  - - - cytokines
      - mitosis
        
        daughter cells grow to original size
- - - - contains xylem and phloem strands
        
        strand run parallel
    - - primary phloem
        
        phloem fibers
      - primary xylem
        
        xylem fibers
  - - - two types
        
        sieve tube members
        
        parenchyma cells
        
        sieve cells
        
        parenchyma cells
  - - - two types
        
        vessel elements
        
        sclerenchyma
        
        tracheids
        
        sclerenchyma
  - - - xylem
        
        conducts
        
        minerals
        
        water
      - phloem
        
        distributes
        
        minerals
        
        sugars
  - - - collenchyma
      - photosynthetic parenchyma
  - - - ingestible by
        
        fungi
        
        bacteria
        
        animals
      - waterproofing
    - - waxes
      - cutin
- - - - means bulky
    - - grow short period
        
        mainly store nutrients
  - - - bamboo
      - irises
      - canna lilies
    - - spread underground
  - - - thin, papery leaves
  - - - thick and fleshy leaves
  - - - long and thin
  - - - most common arrangement
      - form spiral up stem
    - - occurs only in some species
      - arranged in four rows
    - - arranged in two rows
    - - three or more per node
    - - two leaves per node
    - - don't shade each other
  - - - leaf scars
        
        where leaves were attached
  - - - protection of organs
  - - - dormant apical meristem
        
        floral bud
        
        group of flowers
        
        vegetative bud
        
        branch
- - - - always lignified
  - - - petioles
      - shoot tips
    - - becomes thickened in some areas
        
        requires more glucose
        
        production
  - - - thin primary walls
      - most common type of cell
      - mass of parenchyma cells
- - - - active traps
      - passive traps
    - - poor in nitrates and ammonia
  - - - spongy mesophyll
      - palisade parenchyma
  - - - side facing object stops growing
        
        causing coiling around object
    - - squash
      - cucumbers
      - peas
  - - - protected from low temps
  - - - spruces
      - firs
      - pines
  - - - ultraviolet light
      - freezing temp
      - fungi
      - animals
    - - used in own metabolism
        
        limits amount of sclerenchyma
  - - - surface-to-volume ratio
- - - - blade divided inot individula parts
    - - bundles of vascular tissue
    - - allow blade to flutter
      - holds blade into light
    - - upper side
        
        usually smooth
    - - blade's lower side
    - - flat, light-harvesting portion
  - - - fungi, bacteria, or epifoliar algae
    - - absorb CO2
        
        convert to carbohydrate
- - - - leaf primordium
        
        narrow cone
        
        form a protrusion
        
        protoderm grow outward
      - leaves are produced
- - - - functions
        
        protect shoot apical meristem
      - two small flaps of tissue
    - - branch from vascular bundles
    - - water lilies
      - celery
      - rhubarb
      - palms
  - - - midrib
        
        midvein
        
        bundle sheath
        
        many fibers arranged as a sheath
        
        surround vascular tissue
        
        lateral veins
        
        emerge in minor veins
        
        Phloem
        
        loads sugar
        
        Xylem
        
        release H2O
  - - - occurs in center of leaf
      - open, loose aerenchyma
      - lower portion of leaf
    - - one layer thick
      - upper surface
        
        layer of cells
  - - - called transpiration
- - - - vascular cambium
    - - small segment of vascular cylinder
    - - less than 300 species
      - fimilar ferns to us
  - - - a main trunk, lateral branches, trunk leaves, trunk roots
    - - umbrella-shaped
        
        short stalk and flat, shield-shaped head
    - - all herbs
        
        no secondary growth
  - - - united by three synapomorphies
        
        30-kilobase inversion
        
        magaphylls
        
        roots have exarch xylem
  - - - all megaphyllous plants form a monophyletic clade
    - - sporangium-bearing, leaf-like structure
    - - main stem, smooth, cylindrical, dichotomously branching lateral stems
    - - leaves that evolve from branch system
  - - - single main trunk
    - - one stem was more vigorous
- - - - secondary growth
  - - - siphonostele
        
        pith is present in center
      - protostele
        
        exarch protostele
        
        metaxylem located in center
        
        endarch protostele
        
        prototxylem located at center
        
        center of solid mass of xylem
    - - end of branches
        
        swollen
        
        contain large, multicellular masses of sporogenous tissue
      - branches of equal size
- - - - plants called quillworts
    - - less common in temperate North America
    - - common in forests
        
        tropical regions to arctic
  - - - sporangia clustered together
  - - - small enations
    - - lycophyta
- - - - drop seeds on other branches
        
        roots cling to bark of host tree
  - - - transfer water and nutrients to tree
  - - - carbohydrates
        
        produce new shoot in spring
- - - - cells are divided and expanded
  - - - meristematic
- - - - form only in root that is not elongating
    - - many epidermal cells
        
        extend out as narrow trichomes
    - - causes soil to release nutrients
      - complex polysaccharide
        
        lubricates passage of root
    - - thick layer of cells
        
        provides protection
  - - - increase absorption and transport capacities
    - - come from radicle
        
        producing root primordia
    - - comes out of taproot
        
        develops from embryonic root
        
        called radicle
- - - - need for mechanism to disperse seeds
      - need for pollinators
      - cold
      - drought
      - insect attack
  - - - factors that are not part of natural selection
        
        voluntary decision making
        
        intention
        
        planning
        
        purpose
      - survival of the fitest
      - most significant factor causing gene pool changes
    - - the change of alleles in gene pool
        
        by humans
    - - wildfires
      - floods
      - such things happen as volcanic ash
      - organism cannot adapt
        
        example:
        
        collision of meteorite with earth
    - - existion alleles decrease in frequency
        
        new alleles increase
- - - - postulates long series of flow
        
        transitions from completely inorganic compounds to living bacteria
  - - - addition of oxygen from photosynthesis
  - - - requires high levels of monomers
  - - - lack of molecular oxygen
        
        presence of powerful reducing agents
    - - rock matrix
        
        heavy bombardment by meteorites
        
        composing earth
- - - - adaptive radiation
        
        genetic drift
        
        change rapidly and erratically
        
        founder individuals
        
        one seed is the founder
        
        initial gene pool is small
        
        all offspring greatly resemble the first
        
        special case of divegent evolution
        
        species rapidly diveges into many new species
      - biological reproductive barriers
        
        hybrid sterility
        
        two populations interbreed
        
        produce viable seed
        
        grows into sterile plant
        
        earliest postzygotic barriers
        
        prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        prevent pollen moving from one plant to another
        
        act before a zygote can be formed
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        two groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together
        
        effective barriers
        
        differences in flowers
        
        fragrance
        
        shape
        
        color
        
        biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
      - abiologcal reproductive barriers
        
        allopatric
        
        two or more populations
        
        cannot interbreed
        
        physical, nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes
      - some population of species evolve into new second species
        
        while other populations continue unchanged as the original
    - - gene flow
        
        movement of alleles thorugh space
      - vegetative propagation
        
        contribute to gene flow
        
        species produce small, mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively
      - seed dispersal
        
        fruits and seeds of some plants
        
        can be carried to islands
        
        by being trapped on debris
        
        can be carried by wind or floods
        
        falls close to parent
      - pollen transfer
        
        can travel long distances
        
        conifers
        
        grasses
        
        ragweed
        
        carry one full haploid genome
      - one species gradually becomes so changed
        
        becomes new species
  - - - favors same phenotypes in each
    - - resemble each other strongly
- - - - the population that can live in particular ecosystems
    - - number of offspring produced
        
        something that lives long enough
    - - relative proportions
        
        young aged, middle aged, old individuals
  - - - grow with zone of bare soil around it
    - - such chemicals
    - - types that occur in orchids or tree plantations
    - - spacing between plants
        
        small or large
    - - random distribution
        
        no obvious pattern to postion of individuals
    - - limiting factor
        
        lone factor that determines health of plant
- - - - C horizon
        
        composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragments
      - B horizon
        
        zone of depression
      - A horizon
        
        uppermost and sometimes called zone of leaching
      - pioneers
        
        must tolerate several conditions
        
        first plants to invade new soil
      - formed by breakdown of rock
    - - tolerance range
        
        between low and high extremes
  - - - herbivores
        
        animals that eat plants
      - predation
        
        relationship where one species is harmed and one species benefits
      - commensal relationships
        
        one species benefits from other
      - frugivores
        
        fruit eating animals
    - - competitive exclusion
        
        whichever species is less adapted is excluded
      - competition
        
        two populations do not grow together
      - mutualism
        
        beneficial for both organisms
- - - - exist at both levels
    - - carnivores
    - - herbivores
        
        aka secondary producers
    - - autotrophs
        
        first step in food web
  - - - most useful categories
        
        defined by C. Raunkiaer