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COURSE MIND MAP, Seed Plants I: Seed Plants without Flowers (Gymnosperms)…

- - - - vascular cambium and 2* growth
      - 1* xylem was protostele
    - - seeds not produced
      - planated branch systems with spirally arranged simple leaves
      - heterosporous reproduction
- - - - species has staminate flowers on the same plant as carpellate flowers
    - - life cycle consists of 4 types of plants
        
        carpellate sporophytes
        
        staminate sporophytes
        
        megagametophytes
        
        microgametophytes
      - species has individuals that produce only staminate flowers and individuals that produce only carpellate flowers
    - - sepals and petals
      - do not produce spores
    - - produce the critically important spores
      - stamens and carpels
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen & carpels that prevent pollen growth
      - inhibit self-pollination
- - - - pericarp = entire fruit wall, where composed of 1, 2, or 3 layers
      - endocarp = innermost layer; may be tough or thin
      - mesocarp = middle layer; flesh
      - exocarp = outer layer; skin or peel
  - - - exalbuminous seed = endosperm is sparse or absent at maturity
      - albuminous seed = endosperm is abundant
- - - - alternation of heteromorphic generations (sporophyte + gametophyte)
      - spore cannot undergo syngamy; undergo mitosis to become entirely new haploid plant called gametophyte
      - gametes fuse through syngamy (fertilization) to become 2n
      - sporophyte (2n) produces spores (different from gametes)
      - fertilized egg = zygote (2n)
      - gametes = sperm and egg (both 1n)
  - - - individual parts of large spreading or vining plant become self sufficient
      - one of the most common methods
- - - - vegetative cell
      - generative cell->becomes two sperm cells (microgametes)
  - - - egg apparatus = 2 synergids + an egg (megagamete)
      - 3 antipodal cells
      - central cell (has two polar nuclei)
- - - - ovary=where megaspores are produced
      - style=elevates stigma
      - stigma=catches pollen grains
  - - - filament = the stalk
      - anther = where pollen is produced
- - - - quality
      - duration
      - quantity
- - - - photophosphorylation
        
        light energy
      - substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        respire high-energy compounds from food
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        last stages of respiration
- - - - P700
      - little chlorophyll b
    - - electron transport chain
      - P680
      - working backward from PS1
      - amount of Chl b~Chl a
    - - chlorophyll b
      - accessory pigments
        
        broaden action spectrum
      - fluorescence=pigment releases light
      - chlorophyll a
        
        reaction center
      - absorb light
      - transfer energy to e-
        
        ground state->excited state
        
        e- raised to orbital of higher energy (activated)
- - - - place e- onto molecules
      - NADH & NADPH
  - - - take e- away from molecules
      - NAD+ & NADP+
- - - - K+ causes water potential in guard cells to become more negatvie
        
        water diffuses into guard cells
        
        guard cells swell, bend, and push apart
        
        stomatal pore opens
- - - - all lipid/protein cell membranes
- - - - guard cells help control water transport by opening/cloding
      - embolism
        
        air bubble
      - cavitation
        
        water columns break due to dehydration
      - transstomatal transpiration
        
        water loss thru stomata
      - poikilohydry
        
        body water content changes with habitat moisture
      - transcuticular transpiration
        
        water loss thru cuticle
      - cohesion-tension hypothesis
      - adhesion
      - cohesion
  - - - mechanisms that seal broken sieve elements
        
        callose (polymer)
        
        P-protein/ P-protein plug
      - sites that receive transported phloem sap
    - - specific mass transfer
      - excludes water
      - amount of sugars & nutrients transported by phloem per hour
    - - STM/CC complex
        
        functional unit: conducting cell & 1+ companion cells
      - companion cells and parenchyma important in loading
      - polymer trap mechanism
        
        monosaccharides enter, become polymers and cannot get out
        
        phloem is loaded by this in some species (loading mechanism 2)
      - sugars are actively transported in sieve elements (loading mechanism 1)
      - sites from which H2O & nutrients are transported
    - - molecular pumps and active transport
      - mechanism by which H2O and nutrients are moved thru phloem
- - - - pressure potential equation
  - - - water potential becomes more negative
      - protoplast pulls completely away from cell wall and shrinks
    - - point at which protoplast has lost just enough water to pull slightly away from wall
- - - - transposon
        
        carries genes that code for proteins not involved in transposition
        
        longer than insertion sequence
      - insertion sequence
        
        have genes for splicing itself
      - pieces of DNA that readily change position
- - - - predicts that different types of animals should adopt different diets based on variations in search time
- - - - relationship between area and species richness
    - - gamma= number of species within a region
      - beta= compares differences between several small sites within a larger region
      - alpha= # of species or growth forms that occur at a local site
- - - - 2 FADH2
      - 6 NADH
      - 2 net ATP's :explode:
    - - 2 NADH
    - - 2 net ATP's :explode:
      - 2 NADH
  - - - some plants
      - help survive stressful conditions
      - more efficient heat production
      - alternative e- carriers
      - generating large amounts of heat :fire:
- - - - metabolic control
    - - influenced by flooding
      - more variable for roots
    - - very high temp decreases rate
        
        low temp decreases rate
      - slightly high temp increases rate
- - - - 2 net NADPH #
      - source for fundamental compounds
      - intermediates phosphorylated
  - - - net ATP depends on length of fatty acid
      - wasteful
    - - beta oxidation
        
        fatty acids->acetyl CoA
    - - hydrogren sulfate & thiosulfate
      - lithotrophs
    - - glycolysis
        
        NADH recycled by NADH shuttle
        
        accumulation of NADH
        
        2 net ATP's :explode: #
        
        substrate level phosphorylation
      - obligate anaerobes
      - no oxygen
      - fermentation
        
        alcoholic beverages
        
        spirits
        
        ethanol content above 20%
        
        wine
        
        fermented fruit juices
        
        beer
        
        fermenting starchy cereal grains
        
        animals
        
        lactate/lactic acid :warning:
        
        plants & fungi
        
        acetaldehyde->ethanol :warning:
    - - electron transport chain
        
        about 30 net ATP's :explode: :!: #
        
        proton gradient used to make ATP
        
        H2O released
        
        e- passed to cytochromes
        
        in mitochondria
      - citric acid cycle
        
        2 net ATP's :explode: #
        
        prep step
        
        in mitochondria
        
        pyruvate->acetyl CoA
      - obligate/strict aerobes
      - O2 is e- receptor
- - - - numerous small chloroplasts in each cell
  - - - rhizoids
        
        #
        
        trichome-like structures at the base of the stem
      - sugar moves slowly thru parenchyma cells
      - conduct water along the exterior of their stems by capillary action
      - lack hydroids and leptoids
    - - hydroid cells
        
        lack cytoplasm at maturity
        
        conduct water and dissolved minerals
      - leptoid cells
        
        lack nuclei at maturity
        
        similar to sieve cells
  - - - stems always slender with little tissue differentiation
      - no stomata on leaves
      - cuticle only on upper surface of leaves
      - leaves aligned in 3 rows; most with midrib
      - grows from apical meristem that contains prominent apical cell
      - all moss stems have leaves
      - = leafy stems
- - - - antheridiophore
        
        umbrella shaped outgrowth (in some)
      - archegoniophores= stalk with radiating fingers (in somes)
      - have air pores-> no guard cells and cannot be closed
      - not leafy at all; ribbon like or heart shaped
    - - leaves have two rounded lobes with no midrib
- - - - thin scales to increase surface area for photosynthesis
  - - - siphonpstele=pith at center; in stems of ferns and seed plants
      - exarch protostele= metaxylem at center & protoxylem at edges
      - endarch protostele= protoxylem at center & metaxylem differentiates at edge
- - - - leptosporangium=initiated when single surface cell divides
      - eusporangium= initiated when several surface cells divide
    - - sori on underside; where meiosis occurs
      - may be leathery or delicate
    - - leaf gap
      - leaf trace at node of
  - - - sinlge main trunk
- - - - grow in wet, muddy areas
      - similar to Stylites
      - also have ligules #
      - AKA quillhorts
    - - ligule
        
        on upper surface of leaves
    - - microphylls= spirally arranged on their stems; no secondary growth
      - all small herbs w/ prostrate rhizomes, true roots & short, upright branches
  - - - protection
      - clustered together in sporgangia
- - - - fusiform initials
        
        arrangement in:
        
        storied cambium (regular horizontal rows)
        
        nonstoried cambium (irregular, no horizontal pattern)
        
        produce elongate cells of phloem
        
        sieve cells, sieve tube members, companion cell, & fibers
        
        produce elongate cells of wood
        
        tracheids, vessel elements and & fibers
        
        division along periclinal or anticlinal walls
        
        long, tapered
      - ray initials
        
        arrangement:
        
        grouped together in short vertical rows that are either:
        
        multiseriate (many cells wide)
        
        biseriate (two cells wide)
        
        uniseriate (one cell wide)
        
        produce short cells
        
        storage parenchyma
        
        short, cuboidal
        
        division- one daughter remains cambium and other becomes either xylem or phloem parenchyma
- - - - increase in width & addition of adventitious roots
  - - - secondary growth in monocots
        
        secondary vascular bundles
      - roots of sweet potatoes
        
        included phloem between two hands of xylem
        
        amount of storage parenchyma increased dramatically
      - unequal activity of vascular cambium
- - - - contains fibers
        
        large amounts of fibers = hardwoods
        
        few or no fibers = softwoods
        
        give wood strength and flexibility
      - always contains tracheids and/or vessel elements
        
        carry out longitudinal conduction of H2O thru wood
      - develops from fusiform initials
    - - ray tracheids
        
        horizontal, rectangular
      - ray parenchyma cells
        
        two types
        
        precumbent
        
        upright cells
        
        store carbs/nutrients in dormant periods
        
        conduct materials radially over short distances within wood
      - xylem is simple; arranged in rays
      - develops from ray intials
- - - - fusion of carpels become pistil
      - edges of primordia sporophyll crowd and grow shut
- - - - includes mistletoes
      - most are parasitic
    - - perisperm surrounds developing embryo
      - have water-soluble pigments called betalains
      - include cacti, spinach, beets, and more
- - - - flower parts typically occur in sets of 5 or 4
      - vascular bundles in only one ring around stem
      - reticulate venation in leaves
      - two cotyledons
    - - flower have parts arranged in groups or multiples of 3
      - never have ordinary secondary growth and wood
      - vascular bundles distributed throughout stem
      - leaves elongate w/ parallel veins
      - have on cotyledon on each embryo
- - - - familiar house plants
      - large, showy flowers
    - - includes some grass, cattails, and more
      - includes bamboo
      - include foods such as wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, rice and sugar cane
    - - palms
    - - produce yams
    - - septal nectaries to secrete nectar
      - carpels fuse to form septa
    - - presence of spots or lines on petals
      - petaloid monocots
    - - no transpiration
      - air chambers for buoyancy
      - aquatic herbs and aquarium plants
- - - - storing nutrients
    - - allow plant to spread underground
    - - thick stem with thin leaves
    - - short with thick leaves
  - - - decussate
      - spiral
      - distichous
      - whorled
      - opposite
      - alternate
  - - - bud is covered by bud scales
- - - - protoxylem/protophloem
        
        first to appear
      - metaxylem/metaphloem
        
        most time to grow; largest
- - - - conducting
      - mechanical
        
        long fibers
        
        flexible
        
        short sclereids
        
        brittle/inflexible
    - - secondary walls can form pits/pit-pairs
  - - - transfer
        
        transport via pumps
      - glandular
        
        secrete nectar, fragrances, resins & oils
      - chlorenchyma
        
        numerous chloroplasts
        
        photosynthesis
- - - - primary phloem
      - primary xylem
  - - - vessel elements->vessel
      - perforations in primary wall
      - two types of conducting cells (treachery element) #
        
        circular border pits
        
        pit membrane
        
        annular thickenings
        
        reticulate
        
        scalariform
        
        helical
        
        tracheids
        
        vessel elements
      - conducts water and minerals
    - - two types of conducting cells (sieve element) #
        
        nuclei degenerate but cells stay alive
        
        sieve plates
        
        large pores
        
        sieve tube
        
        stacked sieve areas
        
        plasmodesmata becomes sieve pores
        
        clusters are called sieve areas
        
        sieve cells
        
        elongate, spindle shaped, sieve areas distributed all over surface
        
        sieve tube members
      - distributes sugars and minerals
  - - - stomatal pore
      - guard cells
    - - cuticle formed for water retention
      - impermeable to water
      - cover outer walls
- - - - in eudicots and angiosperms
      - netted pattern
  - - - forms leaf scar
      - in autumn
      - cells cut off leaf when no longer useful
    - - sheathing leaf base #
      - leaf base wraps around stem instead
  - - - compound leaf has blade divided into several parts (leaflets)
      - simple leaf has blade of just one part
- - - - photosynthesis contribution in large plants
      - protect apical meristem
      - two small flaps of tissue at base of petiole
  - - - bundle sheath extentsion
        
        water transport from bundle to mesophyll
        
        rigidity
      - protection
      - fibers arranged around vascular tissues
  - - - CO2 diffuses rapidly from stomata to interior
      - open, loose aerenchyma
      - lower portion of leaf
    - - intercellular spaces so CO2 dissolves slowly in cytoplasm
      - main photosynthetic tissue :recycle:
  - - - water loss through epidermis :no_entry:
- - - - cells on either side initiation lamina
      - establishes bulk of midrib (midvein)
- - - - selectively permeable
      - casparian strips (rings) control what minerals that enter xylem
- - - - increase surface area
    - - where cells undergo division and expansion
    - - secretes mucigel which lubricates passage of the root thru soil
  - - - mass of many similar sized roots
- - - - biotic
        
        Inlcudes...
        
        organisms other than plants
        
        predation #
        
        ="pathogenic" in relation to fungi and bacteria #
        
        herbivores; herbivory; browsing; grazing
        
        one species benefits and other is harmed
        
        commensal relationships=one species benefits and other is unaffected
        
        animals, fungi, prokaryotes
        
        other plant species
        
        ecotypes
        
        transplant experiments determine if ecotypes exist
        
        subpopulations of species each specialized in response to particular ecosystem factors at its locality
        
        interations
        
        competition
        
        niche=particular set of conditions each species is adapted to
        
        results in competitive exclusion
        
        disadventageous
        
        mutualism=beneficial for both organisms
        
        the plant itself
        
        modifies the habitat and is part of it
        
        =living factors
      - abiotic
        
        nonliving factors and physical phenomena
        
        includes..
        
        disturbance
        
        quick, radical changes in ecosystem
        
        fires, landslides, snow avalanches, floods
        
        climate
        
        species/organism has tolerance range
        
        latitude and altitude
        
        high altitude-> high winds, poor soils, cold
        
        amount of sun changes with latitude
        
        soil factors
        
        horizons
        
        C horizon
        
        1 more item...
        
        B horizon
        
        3 more items...
        
        A horizon
        
        3 more items...
        
        after many years, soil may have 3 distinct horizons (layers)
        
        new soils are low in nitrogen
        
        pioneers=first plants that invade a new soil; must tolerate severe conditions :warning:
- - - - a lot of energy lost as heat
      - passed along trophic levels
  - - - criterion= means by which plant survives stressful seasons
      - other possible classification system
- - - - many long-lived conifers= K-selected species
      - advantageous to live for a long time, holding on to a site
      - select for different phenotypes than in disturbed habitat genetics affect natural selection
      - conditions in a crowded habitat; close to carrying capacity
    - - r-selected species
        
        little defense against predators
        
        ideally suited for temp. disturbances
        
        typically annuals or small shrubby perennials
      - disturbance usually produces r conditions
  - - - carrying capacity
      - intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        measured under ideal conditions
        
        number of offspring produced by an individual that live long enough to reproduce under ideal conditions
        
        AKA biotic potential
      - generation time
        
        conifer and angiosperms have longer gen. time
        
        annuals have generation time of 1 year or less
        
        length of time from birth of one individual until birth of its offspring
  - - - allelochemics (chemicals) released by one plant to inhibit another (allelopathy)
      - individuals have 1 of 3 types
        
        random
        
        no predictive value
        
        no obvious, identifiable pattern to position of individuals
        
        uniform
        
        not very common in natural populations
        
        occur in orchards and tree plantations
        
        all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbors
        
        clumped
        
        spacing between plants is either small or large; not average
    - - limiting factor=determines health of the plant at any given time/locality