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Botany (Chapter 19 (Origin of Eukaryotic Cells (Origin of Mitochondria and…

- - - - Type of Cytokinesis
        
        Occur in Algae
        
        Phycoplast
      - Origin of Plastids
        
        Secondary Endosymbiosis
        
        Primary Endosymbiosis
      - Origin of Mitochondria
      - Autogenous theory and Endosymbiont theory
    - - In eukaryotes, DNA is more elaborately packaged
      - In prokaryotes, DNA is "naked"
  - - - are diverse in structure and nutrition
  - - - Primoplantae
      - Archaeplastids
      - Streptophytes
    - - Parenchymatous Species
      - Coenocytic Species
      - Laminar Species
      - Filamentous Species
      - Motile Colonial Species
      - Unicellular Species
    - - Anisogamy
      - Isogamous
      - Alternation of Isomorphic Generations
      - Dibiontic
      - Monobiontic Species
    - - 6) Coenocyic or SIphonous Body
      - 5) Parenchymatous
      - 4) Membranous Body
      - 3) Filamentous Body
      - 2) Nonmotile Colonies
      - 1) Motile Colonies
  - - - Coccolithophorids
      - single cells
    - - occur mostly in fresh water
    - - Diatomaceous Earth
      - Easy to recognize because of their distinctive morphology
    - - Trumpet Cells
      - Conceptacles
      - Receptacles
      - Laminarin
      - Littoral Zone
      - almost exclusively marine
- - - - ABC Model
      - Homeotic mutation
    - - Circadian rhythm
      - entrain
      - Negative feedback loop
    - - Day-neutral plants
      - Long-day plants
      - Short-day plants
      - Photoperiod
    - - Adult phase and phase change
      - Juvenile phase
  - - - two hormones may reinforce each other's effect
      - many signals are sent to the nucleates
    - - Other Hormones
        
        Salicyclic acid
        
        Jasmonic Acid
        
        Bassinosteriods
      - Ethylene
        
        Climacteric
        
        Positive feedback system
      - Abscisic Acid
        
        involves many types of stress
        
        (ABA)
      - Gibberellins
        
        complex metabolism
        
        GA1, GA2,....GA125
      - Cytokinins
        
        root-shoot coordination
        
        sugar stimulates cell division
      - Auxins
        
        Polar Transport
        
        Indoleacetic acid (IAA)
    - - All-or-none Response
      - Presentation time
      - Statoliths
      - Statocytes
  - - - molecular patterns that alert the cells of the plant
      - Plants can detect when being attacked by others
    - - roots grow in all directions but thrive in the direction of the water
      - Lets the plants grow
    - - Temperature can break dormancy
      - Vernalization
    - - also Venus Flytraps use touch to get food
      - Plants don't move but do grow up against stuff thus respond
    - - The direction of gravity is instead a guide
      - Causes weight stress
    - - Duration of light
      - Direction of light
  - - - good for reproduction
      - Cells swims towards or away from stimulus
    - - Quality changes
      - Morphogentic Response
    - - Sleep Movements
      - Photonastic
      - Nocturnal
      - Diurnal
    - - Differential Growth
      - Chemotropism
      - Thigmotropism
      - Plagiotropism
  - - - Coleoptile
      - Blue-light responses
    - - fruits are prevented from abscising prematurely by the presence and export of sufficient amounts of auxin through the pedicel
      - hormones communicate to various parts of a plant that information that a particular part has encountered an environmental change
- - - - easily mistaken for dicots
      - Yams are starchy "tubers"
      - Dioscoreaceae
      - the smalles order and has only one family
    - - Septal Nectaries: open areas secrete nectar
      - Septa: fused sides
      - this is a large clade with many families and species
    - - the "typical" monocots
      - large colorful flowers
      - Petaloids
    - - this plants are thin and delicate and have very little sclerenchyma and almost no xlyem
      - loss of stomata
      - many aquatic herbs and aquatic plants
  - - - almost all tropical
      - pollinated by insects, birds, or bats
      - most familiar of all house plants
    - - wind pollinated
      - wheat, barley, oats, rye, corn, rice, and sugar cane
      - contains about 8,000 species
    - - palm flowers are seldom seen because they are usually tiny and high up in the tree
      - the palms
  - - - Orders, lamiids and campanulids
      - Iridoid compounds
      - most derived large clade of eudicots
    - - Highly relictual features found in many basal angiosperms
      - Malvids
      - Fabids
    - - Santalales
        
        ordinary tree, but its roots make fine
        
        Mistletoes
        
        most are parasitic
      - Caryophyllales
        
        Perisperm
        
        Betalains
        
        Anthocyanin pigments
      - not all seem to fit into wither monocots or dicots
- - - - microspores
      - pollen chamber
      - micropyle
      - integument
    - - Trees up to 8.4 m tall with abundant wood and secondary phloem
      - more derived progymnosperm was Archaeopteris in the order Archaeopteridales
    - - vascular cambium and secondary growth
      - to large trees up to 12 m tall
      - varied in stature from shrubs
- - - - Form Genera: all fossils with the same basic form or structure are classified together
    - - which several key characters, often very easy to observe, are chosen as the basis of classification
  - - - eudicots
      - basal angiosperms
    - - uninformative
      - paraphyletic groups
      - apomorphy or ancestral condition
      - common ancestor
      - each point at which branch is called a node
      - is a diagram that shows evolutionary patterns by means of a series of branches
- - - - half-inferior with perigynous
      - Superior ovary or hypogynous parts
      - inferior ovary or epigynous
    - - Grasses, oaks, hickories, and all conifers
      - a totally distinct set of modifications is adaptive
    - - Zygomorphic
      - Actinomorphic or regular
      - Coevolution
    - - Monoecy or Monoecious
      - Dioecy or Dioecious
      - Nonessenital organs and essential organs
      - Imperfect flowers and Perfect flowers
    - - the interaction between a pollen tube and a style involves a haploid
      - compatibility barriers
    - - not a very effective means of ensuring cross-pollination
      - self-fertiliztion in flowers that have both stamens and carpels
    - - help create diversity
      - self-pollination
      - the pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different individual
  - - - Dehiscent Fruits or Indehiscent Fruits
      - Dry or Fleshy
    - - multiple fruit
      - Simple fruite
      - fruits containing only ovarian tissure or nonovarian tissue present
  - - - pericarp
      - endocarp
      - Mesocarp
      - Exocarp
      - ovary matures
    - - Albuminous seed or exalbuminous
      - Radicle, Epicotyl, Hypocotyl
      - Cotyledons
      - Suspensor
    - - double fertilization
      - Endosperm nucleus
      - Plasmogamy and karyogamy
    - - Megagametophyte
        
        Antipodal cell and egg apparatus
        
        Central Cell
        
        embryo sac
      - Microgametophyte
        
        Pollen tube
        
        Generative Cells
        
        vegetative cells
    - - Carpels
        
        Megaspore mother cells
        
        Placentae
        
        stigma, style, ovary
        
        constitute the gynoecium
      - Stamens
        
        Pollen
        
        Microspore mother cells
        
        Filament and anther
        
        Androecium
        
        Above the petals
      - Petals
        
        Perianth
        
        Corolla
        
        above the sepals on the receptacle
      - Sepals
        
        Calyx: all the sepals together
        
        the lowest and outermost of the four floral appendages
      - Complete or Incomplete flowers
      - Receptacle
      - Pedicel
    - - Gametophyte
      - fertilization
      - Sporophyte phase or generation
      - Zygote
      - Gametes in either sperm or eggs
- - - - Elaters
    - - Archegoniophores
      - Antheridiophore
      - Thallus
      - air pores
      - Leafy Liverworts and Thallose Liverworts
  - - - mosses can grow on hard surfaces since they do not have roots
      - low temperature
      - smaller in size
    - - calyptra
      - peristome teeth
      - operculum
      - Seta
      - Capsule
      - bulbous tissue called "foot"
    - - Reproduction
        
        archegonia
        
        antheridia
      - Development
        
        produces many buds
        
        Protonema
      - Water Transport
        
        Rhizoids
        
        Leptoids
        
        Hydroids
      - Morphology
        
        gametophores
  - - - death factor is unknown
      - foot embedded in gametophore tissue but there is no seta or discrete sporangium
    - - not on surface instead a special mucilage chamber forms near the upper surface
      - three or four protonema cells are produced before the gametophore phase
      - always thin
- - - - The higher the latitude the lower the diversity
    - - Species Abundance Distribution
      - S=cAz
      - Species-area Relationships
      - Scales matter
  - - - The plants are not actually competing for and using a resource
      - Many herbivores will eat a variety of plants
    - - Invasive
      - Resources
      - Interference Competition
      - Exploitation Competition
    - - Optimal Diet Model
      - Optimal Foraging Theory
    - - Fixed Quota Harvesting
      - Fixed Effort Harvesting
      - Maximum Sustained Yield
      - Paradox of Enrichment
      - Zero Growth Isocline
      - Prey-dependent
      - Functional Response
- - - - Copies the DNA multiple times to then break down into many pieces to decode it
    - - open-reading frame (ORF)
      - pyrosequencing method
      - Chain termination method
    - - Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs)
      - Plasmid
      - The Polymerase Chain Reaction
        
        short sequence like AAAAAA which has a pair of TTTTTT
        
        polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
    - - Physiological Studies
        
        DNA microarray
        
        Expression profiling
        
        Complementary DNA (cDNA)
        
        Reverse transcriptase
      - Evolutionary Studies
        
        Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
        
        Restriction map
    - - Recombination DNA
      - DNA ligase
      - Palindromes
    - - Hybridization and Reannealing
      - DNA melting and DNA denaturation
  - - - there are only a few effective treatments for plants
      - plants suffer from virus caused diseases as well
    - - fragments of a host help build viruses
      - Closely related to a host
    - - Viruses adapt so that they can stay alive
    - - Temperature may stop production
      - Virulent
      - Bacteriophages
    - - Split genome viruses
      - Retroviruses
  - - - Termination of Translation
        
        the high energy bond holding the protein to the p channel is broken
        
        When a stop codon is pulled into the A channel
      - Elongation of the Protein Chain
        
        enters at random
        
        P channel and A channel
      - Initiation of Translation
        
        Frameshift error
        
        Eukaryotic Initation Factors (eIFs)
    - - Poly(A) Tail
      - Hairpin Loop
      - hnRNA (heterogeneous nclear)
    - - Exons and Introns
      - RNA Polymerase II
      - Promoter regions
      - TATA box
    - - Nucleosomes and histones bind to make chromatin
      - DNA stored in the nucleus of the cell
      - DNA does not produce protein but mRNA instead
- - - - Gene Family
      - Paralogs
      - Nondisjuction
      - Polyploid
    - - If it affects basic metabolic functions such as repiration, DNA replication, cellulose synthesis, or structure of histones
    - - Plants have Pollen Parents and Ovulate Parents
      - Uniparental Inheritance more specifically Matenal Inheritance
      - Biparental Inheritance
  - - - selfing
  - - - not perfect thus why we have sexual reproduction
    - - some times very important for vegetative offspring
      - does not affect the offspring due to asexual reproduction
    - - Proteins can not function
      - deletion
      - the effects depend on its nature, position, and extent
    - - Transposon
      - Insertion sequences
      - Chemicals, x-ray, radiation
- - - - Establishment Growth
    - - Secondary Growth in Monocots
        
        Secondary vascular bundles
      - Unequal Activity of the Vascular Cambium
        
        soon becomes a thin, flat, woody ribbon
        
        woody vines
      - Included Phloem
        
        oldest secondary phloem then becomes reactivated
      - Roots of Sweet Potatoes
        
        the amount of parechyma is increased dramatically
  - - - Fiber cells produce fibrous, stringy bark, sclereid-filled phloem produces hard barck
    - - aerenchymatous cork
    - - Outer and Inner Bark
      - Periderm
      - Phellogen and Phellem Cell
  - - - Nontoried Cambium
      - Storied Cambium
    - - Short and less cuboidal
    - - Anticlinal Walls
      - Periclinal Wall
    - - Interfascicular Cambium
      - Faciular Cambium
      - Vascular Cambium
  - - - In response to such stress
    - - Heartwood is the dark wood and lighter
      - Sapwood is the moister outer region
    - - Diffuse porous and ring porous
      - Early Wood
    - - Upright cells and Procumbent cells
      - Softwoods and Hardwoods
      - Axial system and Radial system
- - - - Psilotum and Tmesipteris
        
        two small genera contain the simplest of all living vascular plants
      - Eusporangia and Leptosporangia
        
        initiated when several surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
      - Sori or sorus
      - Leaf Gap
      - Leaf Trace
      - Leptosporangiate Ferns
    - - Monopodial Growth
      - sporangiophore
      - horsetails or scouring rushes
    - - Monilophytes
      - telomes
      - telome theory
  - - - enations
      - small herbs without secondary growth
    - - Seed Plants
      - Siphonostele
      - Exarch Protostele
      - Endarch Protostele
      - Protostele
    - - no separate microspores and megaspores
      - equal dichotomous branching
  - - - CAM
      - ligule
    - - Cones or Strobili
    - - looks like bark
      - microphylls
- - - - what is classified as living?
      - the chemosynthetic theory postulates a long series of slow gradual transitions from completely inorganic compounts to liing bacteria
    - - it created conditions that selected for the evolution of aerobic respiration
      - it allows the world to rust
    - - free molecules would have given that aggregate great advantage over the others
      - heterotrophs absorbing all material from the ocean and modifying only a few molecules
    - - aggregates are not postulated to have been alive or even to have been early stages of life due to the lack of genetic storage
      - the possible chemical evolution of life would have been aggregation of chemical components
    - - Need a high concentration of monomers
      - monomers present in the early ocean had to polymerize if life were to arise
    - - all the experiments tell us what is theoretically possible
      - water was boiled and as steam rose it mixed with the atmosphere to acted on by the electrical sparks
    - - Time Available for the Origin of Life
        
        Just a lack of oxygen molecules
        
        the time for the chemsynthetic origin of life had no limits
      - Energy Sources
        
        water was mainly in the atmosphere
        
        Electricity was abundant on a gigantic scale
      - Chemicals Present in the Atmosphere
        
        Hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, methane, and water
        
        Reducing atmosphere
        
        Second atmosphere
  - - - as the environment changes so does the multiple selection pressures
      - the loss of individuals and reduced reproduction are not caused by a single factor
    - - Competition does not occur in a habitat
      - If all the population is genetically identical
    - - Factors that Are Not Part of Natural Selection
        
        Purpose, Intention, Planning, or Voluntary Decision Making
      - Natural Selection
        
        Does not cause mutations
        
        The best of the best survive
      - Artificial Selection
        
        GMOs are an example
        
        which humans purposefully change the allele frequency of a gene pool
      - Accidents
        
        Volcano eruptions, floods, droughts
        
        events to which an organism cannot adapt
      - Mutation
        
        the significant of a mutation depends on the size of the population
        
        all genomes are subjected to mutagenic factors
  - - - two distinct , unrelated species occupy the same or similar habitats, natural selection may favor the same phenotypes in each
    - - Adaptive Radiation
        
        Genetic Drift
        
        Founder Individual
      - Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Sympatric Speciation
        
        biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
      - Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes
        
        Geographic Speciation
        
        Allopatric
    - - Vegetative Propagation
        
        small mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively
      - Seed Dispersal
        
        animals can have seeds stuck to them
        
        carried by wind, flood, and stream flow
      - Pollen Transfer
        
        Movement can be rapid
        
        both birds and insects tend to help pollinate
        
        each pollen grain carry one full haploid
- - - - Pit-pair
      - Sclereids
      - always lignified
      - thick secondary wall
    - - strechable
      - Primary wall that remains thin in some areas but think in others [corners]
    - - Flower pelats color
      - soft plants
      - Only primary walls
  - - - Primary Phloem
      - Primary Xylem
      - Collaeral
      - Pith
    - - Companion Cells
      - Albumionous Cells
      - Sieve tube and Sieve Plates
      - Sieve Pores and Sieve Areas
      - Sieve Cells and Sieve tube members
    - - Perforation
      - pit membrane
      - Helical THickening, Annular thinkening, Scalariform thickening, reticulate thickening
      - Vessel Elements
      - Tracheids
    - - Pholem
      - Xylem
    - - composed of parenchyma and collenchyma
      - interior to the epidermis
    - - Trichomes [hairs]
      - Stoma
      - Cutin or cuticles
      - single layer of Parenchyma cells
- - - - Leaf Traces
    - - Lareral Veins and Minor Veins
    - - Spongy Mesophyll
      - Palisade Parenchyma
    - - Transpiration
  - - - Leaf Primordium
- - - - Tropical Grasslands and Savanna
        
        Most trees are flat-tops
        
        Africa
        
        lower rainfall develop as thorn-scrub
      - Tropical Rainforests
        
        rain everyday
        
        over 200 cm/year
        
        Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam
    - - Boreal Coniferous Forests
        
        almost exclusively coniferous
        
        Canada
        
        just south of the arctic tundra
      - Arctic Tundra
        
        80% of plant's biomass may be below ground
        
        short growing season, less than 3 months
        
        Permafrost
    - - Alpine Tundra
        
        Mt. Washington in New Hampshire
        
        4,500 m or if cold 3,500 m
        
        the highest point at which trees survive on a mountain or "Timberline"
      - Desert
        
        own distinct vegetation
        
        Arizona and New Mexico
        
        Less than 25 cm/year of rain fall
      - Shrublands and Woodlands
        
        Chaparral in California
        
        Savanna if grass grows in-between trees
        
        Similar to forest except the trees are widely spaced
      - Grasslands
        
        Oklahoma
        
        "Prairie"
        
        All of North America
    - - Southeastern Evergreen Forests
        
        Frequent fires
        
        Florida Panhandle
        
        Evergreen forest
      - Temperate Deciduous Forests
        
        Rocky Mountains
        
        Cold winters and warm (not hot) summers
      - Drier Montane and Subalpine Forests
        
        lower in elevations but holds pine and some oaks
        
        Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada
        
        Montane Forest
      - Temperate Rain Forests
        
        northwest coast of united states
        
        Redwoods of California
        
        giant long-lived conifers
  - - - trade winds blow across the tropics
      - Air circulation patterns drive water
    - - Effects rainfall
      - Continental Climate
        
        rain shadow
        
        Desert islands
    - - This effects the length of time through out the year
      - 23.5 degree tilt
  - - - Mesozoic Era
        
        Tethys Sea
        
        Was 65 million years ago
      - Middle and Late Paleozoic Era
        
        Pangaea was 225 million years ago
        
        Laurasia took 400 million years to make
        
        Laurasia and Pangaea
      - Cambrian Period
        
        Gondwanaland
    - - South america helps break up the Atlantic and Pacific ocean to affect water currents
      - The ice caps hold millions of gallons of fresh water
      - regional latitude determines the climate of a region
- - - - Organisms Other Than Plants
        
        Frugivores
        
        Pathogenic
        
        Herbivors and herbivory
        
        Predation
        
        Commensal Relationships
      - Other Plant Species
        
        Common Garden
        
        Transplant Experiments
        
        Ecotypes
        
        Niche
        
        Competitive Exclusion
        
        Competition
        
        Mutualism
      - The Plant Itself
    - - Disturbance
      - Latitude and Altitude
      - Soil Factors
        
        Pioneers
        
        A horizon
        
        C horizon
        
        B horizon
      - Climate
        
        Tolerance Range
  - - - Primary Producers
      - Energy Flow and Carbon Flow
      - Decomposers
      - Secondary Consumers
      - Primary Consumers
    - - Life Forms
  - - - K-Selection species
      - r-Selection species
    - - Carrying capacity
      - Biotic Potential
      - Intrinsic rate of natural increase
      - Generation time
      - demography
    - - Local Geographic Distribution
        
        Allelochemics and allelopathy
        
        Uniform Distributions
        
        Clumped Distributions
        
        Random Distribution
      - Boundaries of the Geographic Range
        
        Limiting Factor
- - - - either accumulate or expel potassium
      - Joints
    - - help the stroma open and close