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Trujillo (Conceptual Framework: Democratic School Governance Amid High…

- - - - “For this board member, comparing Ignacio to a neighboring district—one that consisted primarily of affluent, Asian and White students—was entirely reasonable. The API, in her view, was a valid measure of teachers’ instruction and students’ learning—irrespective of the particulars of a district’s racial or socioeconomic context.” (Trujillo, 2012, p.344)
        
        “Such goals also suggested that the district leaders minimally regarded the powerful role of social and historical contexts of oppression in shaping teachers’ and students’ performance.” (Trujillo, 2012, p.346)
- - - - • “As for the superintendent the board chose to hire, a strong command-and- control orientation characterized his leadership as well. Harking back to a lengthy career in the military, he communicated during interviews that he wrote off collaborative processes in favor of top-down, results-oriented ones.” (Trujillo, 2012, p.348)
- - - - “Past studies of school productivity have pointed to child, household, teacher, and school characteristics in ex- plaining school performance. This study adds measures of local control over the school as additional inputs into the educational production function.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 31)
      - “In principle, one could estimate a linearized form of equation (1) using ordinary least squares. However, the principal and the parents will be deciding whether to exert managerial effort in the school, in part, based on their anticipated impacts on school outputs. (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 32)
        
        “If the parents and school officials make these decisions with knowledge of the children’s innate abilities, then least-squares estimation of equation (1) will be biased.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 32
    - - “These findings should give pause to the widespread clamor for decentralization. It is highly likely that schools that willingly manage schools perform better than if they did not exert that effort. However, it seems clear that the choice to manage is largely a local and not a central decision.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 48)
        
        “For the majority of schools that would choose not to manage locally, centralized managerial decisions regarding the allocation of school resources and other administrative decisions may yield the best results.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 48)
      - “A sample encompassing eight Latin American countries shows no evidence that more autonomous schools perform better than less autonomous schools.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 47)
      - “Whether because of perceived local school needs or the lack of central supervision, it is the schools in less populated and more remotely located areas that are most likely to exert managerial effort.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 48)
    - - “We cannot control simultaneously for country fixed effects and for endogenous local school management because our source of identification is the country specific constitutional locus of authority over schools. ” (Gunnarsson. 2009, p. 45).
      - “Another question concerned our use of the factor-weighted sums of the eight autonomy, two parental participation, and eight shortage measures instead of adding these 18 variables separately... but we can compare results under the exogeneity assumption” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 45).
    - - Empirical Definitions of School Autonomy, Community Participation, and School Supplies
        
        “In addition to collecting test scores on sampled children in each school, self-applied questionnaires were given to the school principal, to the teachers, to parents (or legal guardians) of the tested children, and to the children themselves” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 33).
        
        “Our use of factor analysis to combine measures is somewhat unusual in the economics literature, although it is more commonly employed by other social science researchers. Our use of these combined measures of school management and inputs rather than each individual subcomponent is justified on both pragmatic and statistical grounds.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 37)
        
        “To investigate the impact of local school management on school outcomes, we use a multicountry survey carried out in 1997 over eight Latin American countries by the Latin American Laboratory of Quality of Education (LLECE). Our sample includes third and fourth graders in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, and Peru” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 32).
      - Stylized Facts regarding Autonomy, Participation, and Shortage
        
        “Truancy laws do not prevent children from illegally avoiding school, but they do raise the costs of dropping out in states with stricter laws.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 39)
        
        “While it is possible that other measures of parental participation would be more strongly tied to school autonomy, parental participation and school autonomy are clearly unique empirical constructs in our analysis.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 38)
        
        “The LLECE survey contains multiple measures of the degree of autonomy exercised by the school. Each school principal answered questions regarding the school’s authority in hiring staff, allocating the budget, designing curriculum, disciplining and evaluating students, and organizing extracurricular activities” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 34).
        
        “To the extent that the legal environment also dictates parental freedom to participate in local schools or it provides for a level of support for public schools, we might expect that most of the variation in parental participation and in the adequacy of school supplies would also occur across and not within countries.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 38)
    - - Determinants of School Autonomy, parental participation, and adequacy of school supplies
        
        “Apparently, schools in the center are willing (or are compelled) to accept central control while schools on the periphery are allowed to (or have to) develop more local control.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 41)
        
        “There is strong evidence that local school managerial effort is enhanced when the students have more educated parents. Moreover, evaluating the summed effects at sample means, parental education, book ownership, and language skills together raises the average index of school autonomy by 36%, raises parental participation by 72%, and lowers the shortage index by 30%” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 40).
        
        “These efforts are moderated but not reversed by constitutional mandates reserving school management to the central authority. Consequently, it is incorrect to presume that local public school management is exogenous” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 41).
      - Test Score Estimation Assuming Exogenous Autonomy, Participation, and Input Shortage
        
        “Boys do better in math while girls do better in language. The various indicators of parental attributes are uniformly positive and jointly significant with the strongest effects for books in the home and parental language ability. The highest scores were in the more urban schools, although the coefficients were not always precisely estimated” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 41).
        
        “Even when significant, the parental participation effect is small, amounting to less than one more point on the test from a one standard deviation increase in parental participation. Shortages had a significant negative effect on both test scores, but again, the effect was modest.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 42)
      - Estimates Controlling for Endogeneity
        
        • “Compared to the least-squares estimates, the estimated school autonomy effects turn uniformly negative but remain insignificant for both mathematics and language. The estimated parental participation effect becomes much larger and statistically significant. School-supply shortages remain statistically significant and become more important in the case of the mathematics test” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 44).
        
        • “If the decision to send a child to public school is influenced by the degree of local autonomy, parental participation, or the adequacy of school supplies, the distribution of children in public schools may differ depending on these factors. We have no means of judging the potential impact of such sorting on our results” (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. 44).
      - Extensions
        
        “Finally, we repeated the estimation of the test score equation separately for each country. Again, this prevents us from using cross-country variation to identify endogenous local school-management decisions, so we can only per- form the least-squares analysis.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 47)
        
        “These results indicate why treating local school management and school inputs as endogenous may be important for correctly assessing their impacts on student outcomes.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 47)
        
        “When treated as endogenous, and parental participation is excluded, school autonomy appears to have a positive and statistically significant impact on test scores.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 45)
        
        “This result suggests that one may be misled about the importance of local school management if the role of parents or the community is not considered jointly with the role of the principal.” (Gunnarsson et al, 2009, p. 45)
    - - "In Latin America, as in many of the developing regions of the world, efforts to encourage school autonomy and/or community participation are aimed at making schools more productive," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 27).
        
        "In this study, we abstract from the particular mechanism used to affect decentralization," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 27).
        
        "There are substantial differences across countries in how decisions are made regarding teacher hiring, evaluation, and compensation," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 28).
        
        "The contribution of this study is to formally confront the decision by the local authority of whether or not to exercise control over the school," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 31).
        
        "Rather than presuming the local school managerial effort is determined exclusively by legislative flat, we assume that the local authority can choose how much effort to exert in running the school," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 31).
        
        "As a consequence, the exertion of local authority must be treated as an endogenous variable and estimates that treat the exercise of local authority as exogenous will be biased," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 31).
        
        "Maintenance of facilities and equipment is taken at the municipal or school level in most countries, except in Argentina and Peru, where the semi-central level governs," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 28).
        
        "However, even in the above-cited studies that report positive average impacts of decentralization on student outcomes, the improved results are not found in all schools," (Gunnarsson 2009 p. 30).
    - - While studies suggest that decentralized authority can alter resource allocations and improve targeting to the needy, there is less evidence that desired outcomes are enhanced by local control (Gunnarsson et al. 26)
        
        First, populations may not be mobile, so households may not move because of poor quality public services (Gunnarsson et al. 26)
        
        Second, local officials may be subjected to undue influence by prominent local families seeking to divert public resources toward their private needs (Gunnarsson at al. 26)
        
        Finally, local officials may lack the necessary experience or skills to manage resources in countries with few well-educated professionals (Gunnarsson et al. 26)
      - The move toward more local control is motivated by the belief that decentralized control will result in better school outcomes, holding constant the level of resources devoted to the school (Gunnarsson et al. 25-26)
        
        Faguet (2004) found that when Bolivia devolved authority from the center to the municipal level, resources were reallocated away from large-scale projects to smaller education and sanitation projects and from richer to poorer communities (Gunnarsson et al. 26)
    - - School autonomy and parental participation vary more within countries than between countries, suggesting that, in practice, decentralization depends more on local choice than on nationwide decree or legislative fiat. (Gunnarsson et al. 27)
      - Empirical results confirm that schools in localities with more educated parents and that are more remotely located are more likely to act autonomously, have parental participation, and provide adequate school supplies. National policies mandating central control moderate but do not eliminate these tendencies. (Gunnarsson et al. 27)
        
        Schools that practice autonomous decision making do not generate superior test scores. However, better equipped schools, and schools with more involved parents, have better school outcomes. When school resource and parental participation are treated as endogenous, their effects become even more strongly positive and significant. (Gunnarsson et al. 27)
        
        Taken as a whole, the study suggests that devolution of power to local schools cannot be accomplished by central mandates alone but must take into account local incentives to manage schools. (Gunnarsson et al. 27)
- - - - Students’ Views of Change in Physical Education
        
        Field notes written during class observations indicate extremely high rates of participation with no notes on students sitting out, and many entries refer to high percentages of students showing on-task behaviors.
      - Teachers’ Perception of Change
        
        “This idea that physical educators perceive their role in school to be teachers responsible for important content that students will learn and enjoy is at least equally important to change as receiving external accolades for being innovative.” (Cameron, et al., 2016, p. 47)
      - Students’ Perspectives on Physical Education Experiences
        
        One important student perspective relates to understanding what is expected to earn a good grade.
      - Program & Policy Change
        
        Teachers took the initiative and responsibility to adjust not only grading but also physical education content programming based on data collected from their students.
    - - “A major catalyst for changing instruction was the PE Profile assessment package. In particular, the teachers frequently referred to their decision to try the assessments as having a noticeable effect on their teaching.” (Cameron, et al., 2016, p. 42)
    - - “Results indicate that several factors identified by Fullan (2007) were instrumental in these institutionalized program changes. The quality of the innovation, the PE Profile assessment package provided by the state, and the access teachers had to learning about it through the state-provided materials and teacher workshops were important factors in the initiation phase.” (Cameron, et al., 2016, p. 52)
      - “In this case, the student survey and interviews of random students confirmed that either students were oblivious to teachers’ changes in program or changes had improved students’ HSPE experience. Students had varied perceptions of whether there were changes and what the specific changes were.” (Cameron, et al., 2016, p. 52)
    - - These data included transcripts from two rounds of teacher and student interviews (2008 and 2012), grading policies, field notes, teacher journals, professional presentation materials, and teacher documents (e.g., block plans, handouts).
  - - - “American teachers are ready and eager to play a larger and more important role in improving student learning — and the American public very much wants them to do so” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 3).
        
        “Teacher-powered schools can alleviate the tense political landscape because, when teachers share full responsibility and accountability for school success, they address the many hot-button teacher policy issues themselves.” (Education Evolving 2014, p. 3)
        
        Strong support among teachers and the public for Teacher-Powered Schools
        
        “Surprisingly, the public is even more enthusiastic about such arrangements than teachers are, likely because teachers report a healthy amount of skepticism regarding transformation of their field. Still, an overwhelming 78 percent of teachers say teacher-powered schools are a good idea, and 1 in 5 teachers say they are ready to implement teacher-powered schools today” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 6).
        
        Communities create conditions for Teacher-Powered Schools
        
        “Teacher-powered schools harness the collective wisdom, expertise, and experience of the many different stakeholders in K-12 public education — including principals and local school leaders who act in service to the teachers” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 7).
        
        “The American public is ready to know how teachers can transform public education. A new national opinion survey, commissioned by Education Evolving, a Minnesota-based education policy design and advocacy group, and conducted by Widmeyer Communications, a Finn Partners Company, found that 91 percent of Americans believe teachers should have a “great deal” or at least “some” authority in their schools” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 5).
      - The experts support giving teachers collective authority to design and run schools
        
        “The research also included a series of focus groups among teachers. Focus group participants imagined the impact they could have if given the opportunity to make meaningful decisions in how their schools are designed and operated. They cited more consistency among classes, the ability to find the best programs, setting policies and schedules that work, better representing the interests of students, and saving money for the district in the long run” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 6).
    - - Teacher-Powered Schools align accountability with authority in K-12
        
        "Teacher-powered schools offer teachers a new deal: we will offer you collective authority if, in turn, you accept collective accountability."
        
        “Ever since the 1983 report “Nation at Risk” sparked broad concerns over the quality of education in the United States, local, state and federal policymakers have mandated various versions of new standards, more testing, and more accountability intended to raise student achievement and close achievement gaps” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 4).
        
        "These policies, combined with state accountability measures required under the federal No Child Left Behind Act, have limited teachers’ professional autonomy to make the best decisions on behalf of their students.3 The study noted that seasoned teachers often report that they can no longer teach a rich and varied curriculum because of fears their students’ test scores will suffer – their own fears, that their principals’ fears, and their district and state leaders’ fears. Teachers are at the bottom of a hierarchical leadership pyramid, and each level of leadership imposes a new layer of accountability upon them, without providing teachers with commensurate autonomy. In short, teachers are being held accountable for the outcomes of decisions they do not make." Education Evolving, 2014, Pg. 4
      - “In teacher-powered schools, teams of teachers collaboratively decide on the curricula, the allocation of resources, and the form of leadership. They choose their colleagues, handle evaluation, determine the schedule, and set school-level policy.” (Education Evolving, 2014, p. 5)
      - “Across the country, a growing number of educators are exploring meaningful opportunities to transform student learning in provocative new ways, through teacher-powered schools. These teacher teams have secured authority to design and run their schools — making the decisions influencing school and student success — using a professional partnership model” (Education Evolving, 2014, pg. 3).
        
        "teacher-powered schools gives teachers the opportunity to address in innovative ways the quality of entrants to the profession, tenure policies, evaluation, achievement, and assessment".
        
        "They are proof that characteristics of high-performing cultures need not be mandated from the top but can be created by the teachers who take the initiative and make teacher-powered schools happen."