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course mind map (vascular (the mega-hull line of evolution: euphyllophytes…

- - - - grew in small bunches
        
        grew in swampy marshy areas
        
        15 cm tall
      - all extinct
      - named after principal genus zosterophyllum
        
        small herbs without secondary growth
    - - two types of organization in xylem in stems
      - cooksonia
        
        homosporous
        
        equal dichotomous branching
        
        earliest vascular
  - - - dominate the earth at present
        
        12,000 species
        
        leptosporangiate ferns
    - - one genus
        
        equisetum
        
        horse tails, scouring rushes
      - several extinct plants
      - arthrophyta
    - - united by three synapomorphies
        
        they have a 30 kilo base inversion
        
        they have megaphylls
        
        their roots have exarch xylem
    - - three distinct types of homoplasic
        
        leaves
        
        megaphylls
        
        nations of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
        
        leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular
    - - proposed in 1968
        
        three genera of extinct plants
        
        pertica
        
        psilophyton
        
        trimerophyton
  - - - salagenella
        
        less common in north america
      - lycopodium is fairly common in forests
        
        homosporous
        
        true roots upright branches
    - - precondition for evolution of seeds
      - in many lycophytes sporangia are clustered together
        
        cones
        
        offer protection
    - - earliest members
        
        enations were large
        
        barawanathia
        
        drepanophycus
  - - - pollen chamber
        
        holding area for microspores
      - micropyle
        
        hole in the integument permits sperm cells to swim to egg
      - rangier surrounded by a layer of tissue
        
        integument
      - earliest known species with heterospory is chauleria
    - - stems had a siphonostele
        
        pith surrounded by ring of primary xylem bundles
      - trees up to 8.4 m tall
        
        abundant wood and secondary phloem
      - more derived progymosperm
    - - primary xylem of their stems was a protostele
      - all had vascular cambium and secondary growth
      - vary in stature from shrubs to large trees
        
        little webbing between branches
  - - - woody plant with fern like foliage that bore seeds
      - earliest appeared in upper Devonian period
    - - cyadeoidophyta
        
        all extinct
      - cycadophyta
        
        extant
      - pteridospermophyta
        
        all extinct
  - - - have short shoots and long shoots
      - lacks vessels and axial parenchyma
      - unusual
      - ginkgo biloba
  - - - tiny papery leaves occur
    - - produce long needle leaves
    - - always simple needles or scales
        
        leaves often simple with one or two veins down center
  - - - vegetative features
  - - - angiosperms must have originated in the jurassic period
        
        oldest wood that seems to be from an angiosperm comes form the aptian epoch
    - - flowers are small and simple.
        
        ranalean flower
        
        generalized
        
        magnolia type flower was though to be relictual
      - tend to be large trees with dense wood.
    - - Basal angiosperms
        
        carpels are not fused together into a pistil
        
        pollen grains have only a single germination pore
        
        uniaperturate
        
        austrobaileyales contains woody trees with bisexual flowers
        
        stamens and carpels being similar to those of amborella
        
        nymphaeaceae are the water lillies
        
        small soft bodied herbs with vascular bundles scattered like those in monocots
        
        lack in wood
        
        ancestors became reproductively isolated from the other early flowering plants.
        
        before distinctive angiosperm traits had originated
        
        contain the living descendants of several groups that originated while angiosperms were still young.
        
        basal eudicots
        
        caryophyllales
        
        ranunculuses and several others are believed to be clades that
        
        diverged at early stages in eudicot evolution
    - - liliales
        
        monocots -- those with large colorful flowers
        
        large group with many. highly derived families.
      - alismatales
        
        found in swamps and marshes
        
        contains many aquatic herbs such as sagittaria
      - widely believed to have arisen from early angiosperms
        
        several carpels
        
        free or slightly fused
        
        no vascular cambium
      - commelinoid monocots
        
        differ from the others in several unusual synapomorphies
  - - - monocots or eudicots
        
        all angiosperms are classified of one or the other
      - most widely used monograph of the entire division was
        
        semi informal collaboration of many systematists
        
        reconstruction of glosspteris
        
        An integrated system of classification of flowering plants by Dr. Arthur
    - - Flower Structure
        
        Cross pollination
        
        ovary position
        
        burying ovules in order to effect pollination
        
        well protected from pollinators
        
        wind pollinated flowers
        
        energy saved
        
        totally distinct set of modifications is adaptive
        
        animal pollinated flowers
        
        pigments , fragrances
        
        insects visiting resulted in mutations
        
        dramatic impact on the evolution of flowering plants
        
        monoecious and dioecious species
        
        essential organs
        
        they produce the critically important spores
        
        stigma and pollen incompatibility
        
        compatibility barriers
        
        chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
        
        stamen and style maturation times
        
        when stigma and style become mature there may be no living pollen left in the flower
        
        self fertilization in flowers that have both stamens and carpels
        
        prevented if anthers and stigma mature at different times
        
        cross pollination
        
        self pollination
        
        pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower or another flower on the same plant
        
        is the pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different individual
      - sexual reprodutction
        
        fruit development
        
        as the ovule develops into a seed ovary mate into a fruit
        
        fruit types and seed dispersal
        
        fruits are adaptations that result in protection and distribution
        
        of seeds
        
        classification of fruit types
        
        classifying fruits
        
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        true fruits and accessory fruits
        
        sory fruit
        
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        especially with inferior ovaries
        
        pericarp is the tissues of the fruit regardless of their origin
        
        embryo and seed development
        
        suspensor
        
        pushes the embryo deep into the endosperm
        
        endosperm nucleus proliferates
        
        zygote begins to grow
        
        fertilization
        
        double fertilization
        
        fusions
        
        endosperm nucleus
        
        triploid
        
        syngamy of sperm and egg involves both plasmogamy and karyogamy
        
        gametophytes
        
        microgametophyte
        
        microspores develop into microgametophytes
        
        generative cell
        
        vegetative cell
        
        flower structure
        
        carpels
        
        petals
        
        receptacle of petals
        
        sepals
        
        lowermost and outermost of the four floral appendages
        
        complete flowers
        
        four types
        
        pedicel
        
        flower stalk
        
        receptacle
        
        end of axis where the other flower parts are attached
        
        secondary growth does not occur
        
        the plant life cycle
        
        gametes fuse with others
        
        syngamy
        
        trees, shrubs, and herbs are the sporophyte phase
        
        sporophytes are diploid
        
        undergo meiosis
        
        spores
- - - - when DNA uncoils
    - - acts as substrate for DNA polymerase
        
        DNA polymerase
        
        DNA sythesizing enzyme
    - - small bubble
  - - - difficult to detect
      - can kill organism
    - - ovule parent
      - pollen parent
      - biparental inheritance
        
        transmitted equally
  - - - occur at any time
        
        never lead to sex cells
    - - recognize and remove mutations
    - - point mutation
        
        single base coverted
        
        incertion
        
        deletion
    - - almost always harmful
    - - transposon
        
        similar to insertion sequence
      - insertion sequences
      - mutagen
        
        UV rays, x rays
  - - - gene exists in many forms
    - - punnett square
    - - dominant traits
        
        dominate over recessive
    - - selfing
        
        fertilizing own eggs
  - - - two genes are close together
    - - each on chromosomes
    - - two genes on separate chromosome
        
        one moves independently
  - - - convergent evolution
        
        same similar habitats
        
        natural selection may favor the same phenotypes in each
        
        plants in relationship to their habitats
        
        operational habitat
        
        aspects of a habitat and how it affects plant #
        
        two types
        
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        habitat- where organisms complete life cycle
        
        biotic components of the habitat
        
        other than plants
        
        relatioships between plants and other oranyisms is important
        
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        interaction
        
        niche
        
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        competition
        
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        mutulism
        
        abiotic components of the habitat
        
        climate
        
        disturbances
        
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        latitude and altitude
        
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        soil factors
        
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        tolerance range
        
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        growing season determined by
        
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        extremes of the climate are very important
        
        critically important
      - divergent
        
        biological reproductive barriers
        
        hybrid sterility
        
        prezygotic isolation
        
        pollination nor fertilization occur
        
        Abiological reproductive barriers
        
        evolve into a new
        
        second species while other populations continue unchanged
        
        parentals evolve into third species
        
        diversity
        
        checklist
        
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        diversity and latitude
        
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        diversity and scale
        
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      - phyletic
        
        gene flow
        
        vegetative propagation
        
        seed dispersal
        
        pollen transfer
        
        species gradually become so changed
        
        have to be considered new species
    - - multiple selection pressures
        
        adapting using genetics to further life
        
        fungi resistance is an example
      - situations in which natural selection does not operate
        
        identical genetically
        
        impossible to adapt
      - factors that cause the gene pool to change
        
        natural selection
        
        most significant factor
        
        survival of the fittest
        
        artificial selection
        
        purposefully change the allele frequency
        
        accidents
        
        cannot adapt
        
        mutation
        
        existing alleles decrease and new increase
        
        ecosystem
        
        structure of ecosystem
        
        trophic levels
        
        feeding levels
        
        species composition
        
        number of diversity of species that coexist in an ecosystem
        
        beneficial interactions between species
        
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        temporal structure
        
        changes that an ecosystem undergoes with time
        
        physiognomic structure
        
        size and shape of the organism
      - the structure of populations
        
        age distribution: demography
        
        r and k selection
        
        k selection
        
        conditions in a crowded habitat
        
        r selection
        
        disturbance
        
        two factors
        
        intrinsic rate
        
        biotic potential
        
        number of offspring
        
        generation time
        
        birth of first offspring
        
        population growth
        
        geographic distribution
        
        local
        
        random distribution
        
        uniform distribution
        
        allelochemics
        
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        clumped distribution
        
        spacing
        
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        no pattern
        
        boundaries
        
        limiting factors
        
        any factor of ecosystem
        
        health of the plants
    - - the presence of life
        
        chemosynthetic theory
        
        slow gradual transitions inorganic compounds to living bacteria
      - oxygen
        
        oxidizing atmosphere
        
        liberates oxygen
        
        photosynthesis
        
        chlorophyll a
      - early metabolism
        
        metabolic pathway involving two enzymes
      - aggregation and organization
        
        metabolism
        
        fatty, hydrophobic material would accumulate as oil slicks
      - formation of polymers
        
        high concentrations of monomers
      - chemicals produced chemosynthitically
        
        effects of varying atmospheric compositions using energy sources
        
        found amino acids
      - conditions on earth before the origin of life
        
        chemicals
        
        second atmosphere
        
        reducing atmosphere
        
        release of gases from rock matrix
    - - evolutionary changes result in loss of structure
      - many organisms have adapted already
- - - - net ATPs for aerobic can be up to 38 molecules of ATP
      - Internal Regulation
        
        Respiration is subject to metabolic controls
      - Lithotrophs
        
        Lithotrophic heterotrophs
        
        get energy by oxidizing sulfur compounds
        
        lithographic autotrophs
        
        use carbon dioxide as primary source of carbon
      - requires oxygen's the terminal electron acceptor
        
        Oxygen can be variable
        
        in some organisms the oxygen has to temporarily diffuse through stems and roots.
        
        temperature influences respiration in plants.
        
        product of reduction is water: safe and beneficial
        
        Respiration of lipids
        
        some tissues store large amounts of lipid
        
        During germination lipids are broken down into fatty acids, which are then broken down to acetyl CoA
        
        this process is call Beta oxidation
        
        alternate pathway for some organisms
        
        Pentose Phosphate pathway
        
        transforms glucose into erythrose and ribose
        
        extremely important part of the metabolism for some cells.
        
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        Heat Generating Respiration
        
        During glycolysis, CAC, and mitochondrial electron transport small amounts of energy are lost.
        
        lost as heat and increased entropy
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation
        
        NADH passes electrons to a protein that has FMN
        
        reduced FMN passes the electron to a set of ubiquinone
        
        electrons are transformed into cytochrome B
        
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        Citric Acid Cycle
        
        Photorespiration
        
        occurs only when RuBP carboxylase adds oxygen rather than carbon dioxide
        
        wasteful
        
        Pyruvate is transferred to the mitochondrial matrix.- oxidized and decarboxylated.
        
        CO2, NADH, and acetyl are produced
        
        acetyl becomes attached to coenzyme A
        
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        Pyruvate is not needed as electron acceptor
        
        with energy remaining, it breaks it down and generates more ATP
        
        Glycolysis
        
        occurs in cytosol and plastids
        
        NADH migrates to electron carriers that oxidize it back to NAD+
        
        initial steps for aerobic and anaerobic are identical
  - - - Fermentation of alcoholic beverages
        
        can be dangerous sometimes
        
        Produced by the fermentation of glucose and yeasts
        
        Spirits
        
        once fermentation has produced enough alcohol to raise its concentration to 20%, ethanol is added or it must be distilled
        
        during distillation the solution is heated
        
        keeping the mixture above 173 degrees F ethanol and certain flavors evaporate and most water remains behind.
        
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        Wine :champagne:
        
        fermented fruit juice that are rich in sugars
        
        grapes are harvested and smashed to get juices
        
        for red and rose wine skins are left in juice and for whites skins are removed.
        
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        Beer :beer_mugs:
        
        made by fermenting starchy cereal grains.
        
        barley is most common
        
        barley has greatest number of enzymes and concerts starch to sugar very quick
        
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        to get a higher concentration of 18% the fermented mixture must be distilled
      - net ATPs for anaerobic is two molecules for every molecule of glucose
      - respiration in prokaryotes
        
        Lithotrophs metabolize inorganic compounds and extract energy from them.
      - has negative aspects
      - gluconeogenesis
        
        essentially the same as glycolysis, with reactions running in opposite directions.
      - glycolysis
        
        occurs in all organisms
        
        electron acceptor is pyruvate
        
        NAD reacts with pyruvate to form lactate
        
        in plants and fungi, pyruvate is first converted to acetaldeyde
        
        NADH reacts with acetaldehyde and forms ethanol
        
        substrate level phosphorylation
        
        four ATPs generated and two were consumed
        
        net of two ATPs
      - often called fermentation
      - respiration without oxygen
  - - - transfer cells
        
        high volum transport
      - motor cells
        
        similar to guard cells
        
        expel or accumulate potassium
        
        adjust water potential
      - guard cells
        
        control of water transport by guard cells
        
        bulk water movement through xylem
        
        influenced and powered by water loss
      - cells and water movement #
        
        apoplast
        
        molecules move through the wall and intracellular spaces
        
        membranes
        
        intracellular transport
        
        vesicles migrate through cytoplasm
        
        all membranes important in transport processes
        
        long distance transport: xylem
        
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        long distance transport: phloem
        
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        molecular pumps
        
        atp
        
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        water passes through all
        
        aquaporins
        
        selectively permeable
        
        only allow certain substances
        
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        completely impermeable
        
        do not allow anything to pass through
        
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        freely permeable membranes
        
        little biological significance
        
        allow solutes to diffuse through them
        
        symplast
        
        protoplasm one continuous mass
        
        incipient plasmolysis
        
        protoplast lost enough water to pull slightly away from the wall
        
        lysis
        
        cells burst
        
        not plant cells
      - osmotic potential
        
        number of paricles
        
        effect that solutes have on water potential
        
        diffusion
        
        diffusion through a membrane
        
        osmosis
        
        high to low concentration
        
        simple
      - pressure potential
        
        megapascal
        
        effect that pressure has on potential of water
      - free energy of water
- - - - anabolic synthesis of glucose is gluconeogensis
      - storage
        
        short term storage
        
        intermediate term storage
        
        Long term storage
      - storage forms of energy and carbon
    - - CO2 to carbohydrate happens here
    - - synthesis of ATP
        
        use energy to pump protons into the lumen-->cyclic electron transport
        
        may be original power system
        
        electrons flow from water to NADPH its called noncyclic electron
        
        chemiosmotic phosphorylation
        
        moves protons from lumen to storm
      - Photosystem II
        
        like Photosystem I backwards
        
        eventually gets to electron transport chain
        
        NADP---> NADPH
      - Photosystem I
        
        pair of chlorophylls - P700
        
        ferredoxin-active site has two iron atoms bound to
        
        Ferredoxin NADP reductase
      - if photosynthetic unit is low on chlorophyll b --> photosystem I
        
        if chlorophyll is equal to b it is photosystem II
      - accessory pigments-molecules that absorb wavelength
        
        most common accessory pigments in land plants - chlorophyll b and carotenoids
        
        photosynthetic unit- pigments and carriers work together in a granule.
        
        antenna complex- 300 chlorophylls, carotenoids and their proteins
        
        energy is transferred to a reaction center
        
        energy
        
        Energy and Reducing Power
        
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        resonance
      - release of light by a pigment is--- fluorescence
      - ground state to excited state
      - Chlorophyll a only absorbs some red and some blue light
        
        essential photosynthetic pigment
      - 350nm to 760nm
        
        action spectrum-shows which wavelengths are most effective at powering a photochemical spectrum.
        
        absorption spectrum-graph which shows which wavelengths are most strongly absorbed by a pigment.
    - - Environmental and internal factors
        
        crassulacean acid metabolisms
        
        acid metabolism not efficient
        
        thick cuticle
        
        present in cactus family
        
        hot dry climates
        
        arid
        
        c4 won't survive
        
        c3 will not live
        
        more survival than increased growth
        
        second metabolic adaption
        
        C4 metabolism
        
        PEP
        
        photorespiration
        
        energy wasting process
        
        RuBP carboxylase
        
        occasionally binds to oxygen
        
        water
        
        ratio on water use
        
        water is lost because stomata stays open
        
        lets in co2
        
        greatly effects photosynthesis
        
        Leaf structure
        
        cylindrical leaves
        
        good for absorbing co2
        
        inefficient for conserving water
        
        Light
        
        duration of sunlight
        
        quantity of light
        
        if too intense the plant can develop protection
        
        wax and plant hairs
        
        photosynthesis is slower on dull days and faster on sunny day
        
        intensity
        
        closer to equator = more intense
        
        quality of sunlight
        
        colors or wavelengths it contains
      - cell growth
        
        stem growth and differentiation
        
        primary growth
        
        growth and tissue formation the results from apical meristem
        
        primary tissues
        
        tissues produced by apical meristems
        
        ground meristem
        
        stages of pith and cortex
        
        young cells of phloem and xylem
        
        pro vascular tissues
        
        protoderm
        
        early stages of differentiation
        
        stem cells
        
        apical meristems
        
        sub apical meristem
        
        first xylem to appear
        
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        visible differentiation
        
        mitosis and cytokinesis
        
        Basic types of cells and tissue
        
        sclerenchyma
        
        pit pair
        
        sclereids
        
        store starch or crystals of oxalate
        
        brittle inflexible
        
        short
        
        develop from cells produced by cell division
        
        mechanical sclerenchyma
        
        elastic walls
        
        divided into long fibers
        
        conducting sclerenchyma
        
        elastic walls
        
        prevent protoplast from expanding
        
        has primary and secondary wall
        
        elastic
        
        wind, animals can damage
        
        collenchyma
        
        require more glucose
        
        young petioles
        
        short tips
        
        works like air pressure in a tire
        
        unable to hold up stem
        
        plasticity
        
        vining plants
        
        thin is some areas thick in others (cell wall)
        
        parenchyma
        
        little glucose is needed to build
        
        cells that conducts nutrients over long distance
        
        Phloem
        
        release pollen or seeds
        
        some function by dying at maturity
        
        subtypes
        
        transfer
        
        increase surface area
        
        hold numerous molecular pumps
        
        mediate short distance transport
        
        glandular
        
        have lots of dictyosomes and ER
        
        few chloroplast
        
        secrete nectar, fragrances, mucilage, and resin.
        
        chlorenchyma
        
        numerous chloroplasts
        
        involved in photosynthesis
        
        soft parts of plants
        
        have only thin primary walls
        
        most common
      - organization
        
        external organization of stems
        
        phyllotaxy
        
        spiral
        
        leaves are spiraling
        
        decussate
        
        four rows
        
        opposite leaves
        
        distichous
        
        two rows
        
        corn
        
        arrangement of leaves on stems
        
        tubers
        
        horizontal
        
        bulbs
        
        thick fleshy leaves
        
        stolens
        
        long and thin internodes
        
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        no shading
        
        leaf axil
        
        where leaf attaches
        
        nodes
        
        internodes
        
        between nodes
        
        where leaves are attached
        
        internal organization of stems
        
        epidermis
        
        vascular tissues
        
        phloem
        
        sieve cells and tube
        
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        nuclei degenerate but cells stay alive
        
        sieve tube members
        
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        sieve cells
        
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        distributes minerals and sugars
        
        secondary phloem
        
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        xylem
        
        vessel element
        
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        tracheilds
        
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        conducts water and minerals
        
        cortex
        
        can be simple and complex
        
        secrete latex and resin
        
        trichomes
        
        layer of immobile air
        
        elongate outward
        
        hairs
        
        stoma
        
        pores open
        
        guard cells help
        
        letting CO2 in
        
        cuticle
        
        inhibits entry of CO2
        
        acts as defense
        
        leaves
        
        external structure of foliage leaves
        
        petiole
        
        no petiole
        
        sessile leaf
        
        stalk
        
        flutter
        
        holds out to light
        
        leaf blade (lamina)
        
        simple
        
        has blade of one part
        
        compound
        
        blade divided into several parts
        
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        upper side is the ventral surface
        
        smooth
        
        lower side is dorsal surface
        
        basic function is photosynthesis
        
        Internal structure of foliage leaves
        
        petiole
        
        vascular tissues
        
        mesophyll
        
        epidermis
        
        initiation and development of leaves
        
        monocots
        
        basal angiosperms and eudicots
        
        morphology and anatomy of other leaf types
        
        insect trap
        
        leaves with kran anatomy
        
        tendrils
        
        spines
        
        bud scales
        
        leaves of conifer
        
        sclerophyllous foliage leaves
        
        succulent leaves
        
        external structure of roots
        
        structure of individual roots
        
        zone of elongation
        
        behind is root hair zone
        
        root hairs increase surface area
        
        epidermal cells expand
        
        cells undergo cell division
        
        root tip is where growth in length occurs
        
        dictyosomes secrete mucigel
        
        lubricates passage of root
        
        discrete apical meristems
        
        protected by root tip
        
        localized growth
        
        fairly simple
        
        secondary growth
        
        most monocots do not
        
        usually grow larger
        
        conducting capacity cannot increase
        
        adventitious roots
        
        increase the absorptive and transport capacities
        
        most have fibrous root system
        
        organization of root systems
        
        highly branched root system
        
        numerous small lateral roots
        
        lateral roots become swollen
        
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        radicle
        
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        internal structure of roots
        
        mature portions of root
        
        absorption of minerals in root hair zone
        
        causes absorption of water
        
        root pressure
        
        passage cells
        
        only contain casparian strips
        
        function for several days then die
        
        zone of maturation
        
        casparian strips
        
        controlling types of minerals
        
        no distinct boundary
        
        water absorption increases
        
        root hairs grow outward
        
        zone of elongation
        
        tissues are permeable
        
        minerals diffuse throuh
        
        cells expand
        
        root cap
        
        cells detect gravity
        
        secrete mucigel
        
        protection for apical meristem
        
        other types of roots and root modification
        
        micorhiziae
        
        roots for most seed plants
        
        roots of strangler figs
        
        when seed germinates
        
        roots cling to bark of other tree
        
        outer bark
        
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        fruits
        
        prop roots
        
        buttress roots
        
        tropical trees
        
        stabilizers
        
        stem can become wider
        
        with vascular bundles
        
        extensive roots to the soil
        
        storage roots
        
        some are permanent organs
        
        long term storage of carbohydrates
        
        contractile roots
        
        extend through the soil
        
        anchor then contract
        
        roots
        
        other types of roots and root modification
        
        micorhiziae
        
        roots for most seed plants
        
        roots of strangler figs
        
        when seed germinates
        
        roots cling to bark of other tree
        
        fruits
        
        prop roots
        
        buttress roots
        
        tropical trees
        
        stabilizers
        
        stem can become wider
        
        with vascular bundles
        
        extensive roots to the soil
        
        storage roots
        
        some are permanent organs
        
        long term storage of carbohydrates
        
        contractile roots
        
        extend through the soil
        
        anchor then contract
        
        origins and development of lateral roots
        
        lateral roots
        
        initiated by cell divisions in the pericycle
        
        establish connection to parent root
- - - - division anthocerotophyta: hornworts
        
        sporophyte generation
        
        multicellular columella
        
        spores
        
        green
        
        black
        
        golden
        
        brown
        
        yellow
        
        1 to 12 cm long
        
        gametophyte generation #
        
        single large chloroplast
        
        each cell
        
        ribbon or disc shaped
        
        4 to 5 cells thick
        
        thin
    - - thrive in microhabitats
      - heteromorphic generations
        
        cycle
      - growth from apical meristem
      - true parenchyma
      - gametophyte is larger
    - - division hepatophyta: liverworts
        
        liverworts
        
        small plants that have alternations of heteromorphic generations
        
        sporophyte generation
        
        gametophyte generation
        
        thallose liverworts
        
        antheradiophore
        
        umbrella shaped outgrowth
        
        air pores
        
        large
        
        open to exterior
        
        flat
        
        less resemblance to mosses
        
        leafy liverworts
        
        three rows
        
        two larger than the other
        
        resembles moss
        
        no conducting tissue
      - division Bryophyta: mosses
        
        metabolism and ecology
        
        size protects them from flucuations in weather
        
        small size and lack of conducting tissue
        
        critical factors
        
        The sporophyte generation
        
        calptra
        
        growth
        
        peristome teeth
        
        respond humidity
        
        closing when humid
        
        opening when air is dry
        
        operculum
        
        cap like lid
        
        seta
        
        between foot and sporangium
        
        foot
        
        absorbs sugar, water and minerals
        
        the gametophyte generation
        
        morphology
        
        gametophores
        
        water transport
        
        rhizoids
        
        2 more items...
        
        majority of mosses lack hydroids and leptoids
        
        leptoids
        
        1 more item...
        
        hydroids
        
        1 more item...
        
        cuticle occurs on upper
        
        increasing photosynthetic tissue
        
        grow from apical meristems
        
        leafy stems
        
        ubiquitous