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Chapter 14: Development and Morphogenesis (Environmental Complexity (Touch…
Chapter 14: Development and Morphogenesis
Concepts
pattern establishment mechanism
cell location relative to epidermis cell
polarity
formation
shoot axis
root
differentiation
increase some cell become different from each other
morphogenesis
various organs
generation of shape of the plant
Flowering
ABC Model of Flower Organization
homeotic mutation
organ develop in unexpected site
ABC model
most flowers can explain by hypothesis
Endogenous Rhythms and Flowering
circadian rhythm
period approximately 24 hrs long
entrain
exactly 24 hrs long
reset the rhythm
negative feedback loop
clock is poorly understood
endogenous rhythms
cycle controlled by internal factor
metabolism cycle repeatedly between two states
Photoperiodic Induction to Flower
critical night length
varies from species to species
phytochrome
absence of light
detects the presence
day-neutral plants
do not respond to day length
long-day plants
summer
days are long
short-day plants
spring or fall
day are short
photoperiod
transition to flowering is triggered
Ripeness to Flower
phage change
conversion from juvenile to adult
adult phase
sensitive to floral stimuli
juvenile phase
plants are incapable induced to flower
Hormones as Signals of Environmental Factors
Tropisms
coleoptile
oat coleoptiles are organ studied
oat seed have outermost protective leaf
shows strong positive phototropic
blue-light responses
blue-light stimulates other aspects of plant development
Leaf Abscission
root result in
environmental factor influenece
cytokinin
large flows of auxin
normal growth of shoot
Interactions of Hormones in Shoots
interplay of two or three hormones
apical dominance absence of auxin
Activation and Inhibition of Shoots by Auxin
Differentiation of Vascular Tissues
#
response is cell division
and morphogenesis
third site of response t auxin produced in shoot tip
Apical Dominance
apically produced auxin induces dormancy
in axillary buds
result being each shoot tip has only one
Cell Elongation
auxin triggers cell elongation
in young cell internodes below apical meristem
Communication within the Plant
Signal Amplification Cascades
encounter proper genes quickly
chances are very high will enter nucleus
not just original
thousands of messenger molecules
Chemical Messengers
hormones
organic chemicals produced in one part of plant
then transported to other
all plant by slow mechanism
transport of hormones through plant
Perception and Transduction
dosage-dependent responses
amount or duration of stimulus effect
all-or-none response
stimulus not long important
present time requirement are met
after the threshold
two important factors in preception&transduction
threshold
level of stimulus must present during presentation time to cause
transduction
perception
presentation time
length of time the stimulus present for perceptive cells
complete transduction
to react
statocytes
sink in response to gravity
statoliths
have large starch granules
root caps
Responding to Environmental Stimuli
Taxis
away from stimulus
cell swim toward
Morphogenic Responses
change "quality" of plant
morphogenetic response
Nastic Responses
sleep movement
lowered at night
blade elevated in the day
photonastic
light given artificially from
below
above
northsouth
west
opening and closing in same manner
nocturnal
active at night
diurnal
active during daylight
not oriented with regard to stimulus
stereotyped nongrowth
Tropic Responses
differential growth
both
opposite side accelerating
contact side slowing
chemotropism
probably from synergids
growing a long
pollen tubes for flowering plant suspect
thigomotropism
touch is stimulus
plagiotropism
growth at angle
growth response oriented with regard to stimulus
Environmental Complexity
Pests and Damage
pests such as
digestive enzymes
insects
fungi
bacteria
plant must detect when they being attacked by
Water
does not act like a signal in the way other factors
prerequisite for life
Temperature
fluctuates in predictable pattern
yearly axis
daily
Touch
respond contact
frequently grow against bojects
plants do not move around
Gravity
respect direction
selectively advantageous for many cell
to orient themselves
Light
provides two important type of info
duration of light
time of year
direction or more precisely
gradient of light
Chapter 22 Seed Plants I: Seed Plants Without Flowers ("Gymnosperms")
#
Division Gnetophyta
contains three groups of enigmatic plants
Welwitschia mirabilis, the only species in the genus
Ephedra with about 40 species
Gnetum with 30 species
anthophytes
reproduction have been interpreted as indicate that gnetophytes
certain aspects of their anatomy
two sister clades with a common ancestor
Division Ginkgophyta: Maidenhair Tree
#
G. biloba is itself unusual
maidenhair tree
unusual to erect an entire division for a single species
division contains a single living species
Ginkgo biloba
Division Cycadeoidophyta: Cycadeoids
two groups differ only in subtle details of the differentiation of stomatal complexes
had vegetative features almost identical to those of cycads
Division Cycadophyta: Cycads
Macrozamia can reach heights of 18m
most cycads are short plant less than 1 or 2 m tall
have stout trunks with pinnately compound leaves
modern cycads are frequently confused with either ferns or young palm trees
Division Coniferophyta: Conifers
ovuliferous scale
its megasporophylls are fused laterally
axillary bud is microscopic
cone bracts
short axis bears leaves
compound cones
each consisting of a shoot with axillary buds
simple cones
single short unbranched axis that bears microsporophylls
pollen cones
conifers
giant redwoods of CA
Sequoiadendron giganteum
all trees of moderate to gigantic size
familiar plants
Division Pteridospermophyta: Seed Ferns
pteridosperms are thought have evolved from the Aneurophytales
b/c earliest seed ferns
Stenomyelon
classified as three division
Cycadeoidophyta
all extinct
cycadeoids
Cycadophyta
extant
cycads
Pteridospermophyta
all extinct
seed ferns
progymnosperms gave rise to another line of gymnospermous plants in addition to the conifers
cycadophytes
earliest seed ferns
upper Devonian period
other appeared later
Division Progymnospermophyta: Progymnosperms
progymnosperms
rise later to
other gymnosperms
cycads
conifers
third group to evolve from trimerophytes
Evolution of Seeds
micropyle
produced eggs
hole in integument that permitted the sperm cells to swim to the egg after developed into megagamtophyte
integument
projected upward
megasporangium was surrounded by a layer of tissue
Archaeopteridales
heterosporous reproduction in archaeopterids
secondary phloem
trees up to 8.4m tall with abundant wood
more derived progymnosperms was Archaeopteris
Aneurophytales
further resembled trimerophytes in having little webbing between their ultimate branches
contains the more relictual progymnosperms
Eospermatopteris
Triloboxylon
Tetraxylopteris
Proteokalon
Protopteridium
Aneurophyton
Concepts
division of living seed plants
division Magnoliophyta
division Gnetophyta
#
division Ginkgophyta
division Coniferophyta
#
division Cycadophyta
#
angiosperms
#
fruits are mature carperls
closed structure
believed to be sporophylls form a tube-like
with carpels
flowering plants
gymnosperms
located on flat sporophylls
example
Pine cones
"naked ovules"
spermatophytes
Alternative:
vascular cryptogams
plants produce seeds
lignophytes
used as an informal name for the clade woody plants
synonym for a plant develops wood
Chapter 8: Structures of Woody Plants
Anomalous Forms of Growth
Unusual Primary Growth
establishment growth
adventitious root in palms
increase in width
palm tres
Anomalous Secondary Growth
alternative cambia
secondary growth in monocots
secondary vascular bundles
parenchyma cells repaid division
produce narrows cell
unequal activity of the vascular cambium
all areas have equal activity
ordinary growth
included phloem
produces ordinary secondary
phloem
xylem
vascular cambium arises
several eudicots
roots of sweet potatoes
parenchyma increased dramatically
Ipomoea batatas
Secondary Growth in Roots
most roots are woody
shoot wood
not identical
Outer Bark
Initiation of Cork Cambia
first bank
reactivation
initiation time variable
Lenticels and Oxygen Diffusion
lenticels
aerenchymatous cork
Cork and Cork Cambium
inner bark
sencondary phloem
outer bark
innermost cork cambium
periderm
cork cambium
phelloderm (if any)
layers of cork cells
phelloderm
mature parenchyma
cork cell/phellem cell
outer cell differentiates
cork cambium/phellogen
secondary phloem
Secondary Phloem
axial and radial system
responsible for conduction up and down the stem/root
vascular cambium
Secondary Xylem
Reaction wood
not vertical
Heartwood and Sapwood
tylosis
plural: tyloses
plug
sapwood
lighter
moister
hearwood
drier
darker
Growth Rings
ring porous
example of tree
honey locust
sassafras
red oak
vessels restricted to early wood
diffuse porous
examples of tree
american holly
sugar maple
aspen
yellow birch
growth ring vessels throughout
annual ring
growth ring
later wood
older wood
transpiration is less
cuticle thickened
lower proportion of vessels
summary wood
Type of Wood cells
type of parenchyma cells
contain ray tracheids
rectangular cells
horizontal
procumbent cells
upright cells
plasmodesmata occur
adjacent to axial parenchyma
softwoods
lack fibers
soft
balsa
hardwoods
tough
construction
strong
large amount fibers
axial system
fusiform
radial system
develops from ray initials
secondary xylem
woods contain
parenchyma
tracheids
sclereids
fibers
Vascular Cambium
Arrangement of Cambial Cells
nonstoried cambium
without horizontal pattern
irregularly
storied cambium
have evolved more than nonstoried
example
persimmon
redbud
horizontal rows
Ray initials
short and more /less cuboidal
similar to fusiform initials
Fusiform Initials
anticlinal walls
cambium surface
perpendicular
periclinal wall
produces two elongate cells
secondary xylem/phloem
outer cell
inner cell
xylem
cambium
fusiform initial
tapered cells
long
Initiation of the Vascular Cambium
vascular cambium
interfascicular cambium
resume mitosis
out of cell cycle arrest
parenchyma
vascular bundles
fascicular cambium
vascular cambium cells
produce secondary plant body
cambia
plural
Concepts
Herbs
shorter life span
short
die young
live fast
secondary tissues
wood
examples
firs
pines
chestnuts
sycamores
bark
cork
secondary phloem
new tissues
primary tissues
leaves
pith
vascular bundles
cortex
epidermis
Chapter 16: Genetics
#
other aspects of inheritance
multiple set of chromosomes and gene families
paralogs
genes similar to wild-type allele
recoginzed having originated duplicates
extra copies of gene may repidly
become nonfunctional
deleterious mutations not eliminated quickly
by natural selection
nondisjunction
fail to disjoin
the other receives none
one daughter cell receives both copies
polyploid
more than two set of chromosomes
lethal alleles
lenthal
presence can kill plant
phenotypic result of mutation
severity from undetectable
difficult to detect
if effect occurs early
maternal inheritance
variegation
presence of spots or sectors
orange
red
white
plastid inheritance
pollen parent
ovule parent
outcome depends on which plant
chlorophyll-bearing plant
green
uniparental inheritance
zygote obtains al plastid&mitochondrion genomes from maternal parents
maternal inheritance
biparental inheritance
alleles both parents are transmitted equally to progeny
multiple genes for one character: Quantitative Trait Loci
individual phenotypic traits
many separate genes affect any single trait
complex metabolic process involving numerous enzymes
pleiotropic effects
multiple phenotype effects o one mutation
epistasis
having multiple genes for each trait
Dihybrid Crosses
dihybrid cross
two genes studied and analyzed simultaneously
genes on the same chromosome: linkage
map unit
approximately one million base pairs
on average
one centimorgan
recombinant chromosomes
first two are
parental type chromosomes
recombination of alleles
crossing-over of the homologous chromosomes
two genes close together on a chromosome
don't undergo independent assortment
crossing-over
father apart two genes
greater possibility crossing over
during prophase I
synaptonemal complex is formed
after homologous chromosomes paried
can occur several times
genes on separate chromosomes: independent assortment
independent assortment
alleles one gene move independently
two genes are separate chromosomes
Monohybrid Crosses
cross
sexual reproduction between two individuals
multiple alleles
genes may exist in many forms
monohybrid crosses with complete dominance
dominant
complete dominance
difficult know genotype of any particular plant
height
recessive
test crosses
pure-bred lines
kept pure
being selfed
kept special line
test cross
homozygous recessive for trait
involving the plant in questions
genotype
crossing heterozygotes with themselves
punnett square
other gamete arranged on the left side
ehh arranged along the top of square
set up type of one gamete
selfing
plant own pollen& fertilize its own eggs
monohybrid crosses with incomplete dominance
heterozygous
different flowered parent genotype is Rr
homozygous
red-flowered parent is RR&white-flowered is rr
parental generation
resembling each parent
flower in new generation are pink
inhertiance of other is not considered
single character
Mutations
mutations
inversion
put in backward
repair
breaks
tangled
deletion
short regions of sequence
DNA is lost
point mutation
single base converted to another base by various methods
large or small
any change
DNA repair processes
most mutation are deleterious
selectively advantageous for organisms
somatic mutations
mutations occur at anytime in any cell
never lead to sex cells
effects of mutations
protein cannot function
extent
position
nature
cause of mutations
transposon
carries genes code for proteins
except much longer
insertion sequence
insertion sequences
contain the genes code for enzymes
few thousand base pairs long
mutagen
several that important
radiation from radioactive substances
X-rays
ultraviolet light
certain chemicals
something cause mutations
Replication of DNA
ligated
complete molecules
attached to each other with covalent bonds
replication fork
forked appearance
DNA uncoils then separates
semiconservative replication
conserved one old one
double helix contains new molecules
DNA polymerase
DNA-synthesizing enzyme
primer RNA
not deoxyribonucleotides
ribonucleotides
replicon
small "bubble"
separate short region
DNA double helix is cut
Concepts
alleles
#
important concept of inheritance
asexual reproduction
same alleles
exactly same DNA
offspring is identical to it parent
sexual reproduction
organism combines it alleles with other
phenotype
metabolism
shape
individuals's size
genotype
single alleles
genetics
science of inheritance
Chapter 15: Genes and Genetic Basis of Metabolism and Development
Viruses
Plant Diseases Cause by Viruses
at least thousand different virus-caused diseases
Origin of Viruses
species closely related to host
portions of genes of the host species
Formation of New Virus Particles
viral components assemble into new particles
Virus Metabolism
type of organisms attacked
prokaryotes
algae
protozoans
fungi
animals
plants
invade a living cell in order to reproduce
bacteriophages
viruses attack bacteria
Virus Structure
split genome viruses
not all of nucleic acid is packaged as one particle
retroviruses
single-stranded RNA
diversity of nucleic acids in plant viruses
Genetic Engineering of Plants
recombinant DNA techniques have made it possible for botanist to
study the structure&activity of many genes
isolate
identify
ti plasmid
form bacterium
Agrobacterium tumefasciens
attached to insertion vector
after gene and promoter have been prepared
Analysis of Genes and Recombinant DNA Techniques
#
Sequencing Entire Genomes
above only effective for fragment
less than several hundred bases long
DNA Sequencing
open-reading frame
regions found appears have three gene-like features
ORF
pyrosequencing method
DNA added solution with all enzymes for replication
chain termination method
divided into four batches
first cloned obtain a large sample
DNA Cloning
yeast artificial chromosomes
used insted
YACs
vectors
genetically engineered to be ideal DNA fragment
several plasmids
such as pBR322
plasmid
circular piece of DNA occurs in bacteria
short
extremely useful technique
just described
placing of DNA fragments into bacteria
Identifying DNA Fragments
restriction fragment length polymorphism
fragment profiles differ
two species not closely related
RFLP
restriction map
made visible by staining
separated by gel electrophoresis
Restriction Endonucleases
recombinant DNA
DNA prepared
DNA ligase
added to mixture to repair the cuts two fragments join together
DNA repair enzyme
palindromes
running in opposite directions
recognized by restriction endonuclease present
in both strands
class of bacterial enzymes
Nucleic Acid Hybridization
DNA hybridization
reformation of double-stranded DNA by cooling solution of single-stranded DNAs
and reannealing
DNA melting
produces solution of single-stranded DNA molecules
separation
and DNA denaturation
Control of Protein Levels
micro RNAs
gene expression controlled by family of short RNA
cis-acting fctors
TATA box
enhancers
promoters
trans-acting factors
transcription factors come form somewhere bind to DNA
Protein Synthesis
mRNA Translation
frameshift error
typically result in completely useless proteins
virtually all codons are misread
reading nucleotides in the wrong set of three
eukaryotic initiation factors
bind to small subunit
several initiation factors
elFs
translation
synthesis of protein molecule by ribosomes under guidance of mRNA
tRNA
amino acid activation
attaches correct amino acid
special class of enzymes recognizes each tRNA
amino acid attachment site
an anticodon
all tRNAs have small part
anticodon
genetic code can be read only by ribonucleic acid
has three nucleotide sequence
tRNA are necessary
b/c codon cannot interact directly with amino acid
transfer RNA
amino acid are carried to ribosomes by ribonucleic acids
protein synthesis
tRNA
Ribosomes
70S ribosomes
prokaryotes are smaller
mitochondria
plastids
80S
relatively large and dense
found in cytoplasm of eukaryotes
ribosomal RNA
each made up both proteins
one larger than the other
two subunits
rRNA
construct proteins guided by information
small particles"read" genetic message in mRNA
Storing Genetic Information
Transcription of Genes
poly(A) tail
only exception being mRNAs for histone proteins
approximately 200 bases long
hnRNA
rapidly modified by nuclear enzymes
heterogeneous nuclear RNA
hairpin loop
believed affect RNA polymerase
small kink
transcription
begins actually creating RNA
encounters start signal
after RNA polymerase binds
The Structure of Genes
The Structure of Genes
introns
but instead intervene between exons
nucleotides are not expressed
exons
nucleotides whose codons eventually expressed as a amino acid in proteins
promoter region
produce intracellular chemical messengers activate genes by binding directly
hormone alters cell metabolism
enhancer elements
as many as several hundred base pair
from structural region of gene
located even father upstream
most eukaryotic genes have other promoter sequences
structure region
codes for amino acid sequence
genes composed
promoter
controlling region involved in regulate synthesis mRNA from structural region
RNA polymerase ll
or experimental treatment
TATA box is damaged by either mutation
TATA box
#
one
regions particularly important
The Genetic Code
degenerate
genetic code
multiple codons exit for most amino acids
start codon
signals point in mRNA
AUG
stop codons
three codons
UGA
UAG
UAA
codons
can be made using four mucleotides
64 possible triplets
used in group of three
necessary for nucleotides to be read
Protecting the Genes
messenger RNA
DNases
exposed directly to DNA-digesting enzymes
DNAases
chromatin
DNA relatively inert
dense enzymes cannot penetrate
nucleosome
forming spherical structure
histones form aggregates & DNA wraps around
carries info from DNA to protein synthesis
mRNA
Concepts
recombinant DNA techniques
helping us understand process occur
between perception of stimulus& plant's response stimulus
genetic engineering
DNA sequence analysis
#
powerful process is extremely repaid
genes
each DNA responsible for coding amino acid in particular protein
DNA
cell contain a source info hold sequence info for all proteins
deoxyribonucleic acid
differential activation of genes
underly developmental process
differentiates and develops unique of proteins
plants composed of numerous type of cells
Chapter 19: Algae and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
Euglenoids
placed into 36 genera
named
have been discovered
Dinoflagellates
"red tide"
Gymnodinium
Gonyaulax
bodies color the water reddish brown
have many unusual characters
Oomycetes
such as
Achlya
Saprolegnia
must be parasitic or saprophytic
lack chloroplasts
nutrition
diverse in structure
Brown Algae and Their Relatives: The Heterokonts
Golden-Brown Algae
coccolithophorids
do not decompose
relatively inert
usually called coccoliths
325 species
consist of about 70 genera
Yellow-Green Algae
Vaucheria
many thought to be green algae until chlorophyll c was discovered in them
formerly
occur mostly in fresh water
Diatoms
diatomaceous earth
become 100m thick&cover many square km
deposits
distinctive morphology
easy to recognize
Brown Algae
laminarin
not starch
fats
mannitol
a polymer of glucose
storage product of brown algae
littoral zone
also called intertidal zone
the region between low tide and high tide
can found most easily on rocky coasts growing
few fresh water species are known
almost exclusively marine
Red Algae
pit connections
have distinctive
walls of red algae lack plasmodesmata
of type of occurs in plants
floridean starch
never in the chloroplast
occurs as granules in the cytoplasm
branched polymer of glucose somewhat similar to glycogen
excess photosynthate is stored
red algae
fascinating algae
constitute a large group of especially distinct
Green Algae
green algae
constitute an extremely important group
some moved onto land
not only could some early green algae organize complex differentiated multicellular bodies
Green Algae and Embryophytes
streptophytes
charophytes should be considered true plants,no algae
even definition of embryophytes should extended
some people have suggested clade be named
they form a monophyletic clade
Representative Genera of Green Algae
charophytes
just as plant cells do
undergo cell division by means of phragmoplast
zoospores
producing four haploid
zygote germinates by meiosis
conjugation
filaments undergo
instead
swimming gametes not formed
Life cycles of Green Algae
alternation of heteromorphic generations
gametophytes do not compete directly with sporophytes
exploit dfferent ecological niches almost if they were two species
nation of isomorphic genetrations
two may be very different in appearance&construction
monobiontic species
occurs in only one free-living generation exists
dibiontic
alternation of generations between haploid&diploid
Body Construction in Green Algae
coenocytic
giant multinucleate cel result
results if karyokinesis occurs without cytoinesis
or siphonous body
parenchymatous body
three-dimensional
bulky
if cell division occurs regularly in all three planes
membranous body
results if the orientation of cell divisions is controlled precisely
such all new walls occur in only two planes
filamentous body
results if cells are held tightly by middle lamella& if all cells divide transversely
nonmotile colonies
occur if the cells lose their flagella or never develop them
motile colonies
not an individual organism
resulting structure is a colony
if cells adhere loosely
Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
Origin Of Mitochondria and Plastids: The Endosymbiont Theory
phycoplast
perpendicular to orienta tion of the spindle
microtublues oriented parallel to the plane where the new wall will form
cytokinesis occurs
in some green algae
heterokonts
name for fact that all have two flagella of different types
hairs
smooth
involved in one or several endosymbioses with entire cells of red algae
stramenopiles
another group of early eukaryotes
secondary endosymbiosis
euglenoids arose after early eukaryote engulfed an entire green alga
produced other lines of algae
primary endosymbiosis
small group called glaucophytes
green algae
gave rise to clade containing red algae
endosymbiont theory
in the 1960s
revived
autogenous theory
part of which eventually specialized came mitochondria&plastids
developing an endomembrane system
assumed some had given rise to eukaryotes
by gradually becoming more complex
until the early 1970s
Organelles
prokaryotes lack membrance-bounded organelles
containing only ribosomes&storage granules
cytoplasm is rather homogeneous
Nuclear Structure and Division
eukaryotes=ture nucleus
nuclei of plants are
meiosis
mitosis
metabolism
fungi in structure
virtually identical to those of animals
no nucleus is present
DNA of prokaryotes lies directly in cytoplasm
DNA Structure
in eukaryotes
forming chromosomes
being complexed with nucleosome histones
DNA is more elaborately packaged
numerous negative charges being neutralized by calcium ions instead
not complexed with proteins
"naked"
Concept
endosymbiosis
evolved into sophisticated form of eukaryotic cell
with real mitochondria
over 100 millions of yrs
one inside the other
two organisms lived together
embryophytes
#
include green algae which in turn produced true plants
gave rise algae
protozoans & algae
numerous groups of organisms
diversifying into many forms
others more successful and persisted
some species died out quickly
Chapter 3: Cell structure
Associations of Cells
protozoans
algae
Fungal cells
don't contain plastids
chitin
Plant cells
cell wall
provides strength and protection
almost all plants have
storage products
microfilaments
cytoskeleton
microtubules
cytoskeleton
motility
cytosol
volume of cytoplasm
clear
dictyosomes
Golgi apparatus
Golgi body
microbodies
glyoxysomes
only in plants
peroxisomes
endoplasmic reticulum
smooth ER
membrane assembly
lack ribosomes
lipid synthesis
rough ER
rough appearance
ribosomes
particles responsible for protein synthesis
plastids
thylakoids
project into the stroma
membrane sheets
chlorophyII
green pigment
stroma
inner membrane fluid
group of dynamic organelles able to perform many functions
mitochondria
outer mitochondrial membrane
inner mitochondrial membrane
numerous pumps and channels
selectively permeable
cristae
adenosine triphosphate
breaks down ATP
freely permeable
cytoplasm
central vacuole
nucleus
surrounds the nucleus
permanet storage place
archive
plasma membrane
membrane that completely covers the surface of the protoplasm
protoplasm
all cell are made up of protoplasm
water within a cell
nucleic acids
lipids
mass of proteins
Basic cell types
eukaryotic
protists
fungi
animals
plants
prokaryotic
archaea
bacteria
Membranes
properties of membranes
impermeable membrane
doesn't allow anything through at all
freely permeable membrane
allows everything to pass through quickly
compartmentalization
each specialized for a particular process
active transport
molecular pumps
facilitated diffusion
selectively permeable membranes
certain substance cross the membrane more easily and rapidly than others
endocytosis
especially common in algae and other microscopic organism that take in food particles
opposite process
exocytosis
excrete
polysaccharides
proteins
mucilage
debris
wastes
composition of membranes
domains
small discrete regions
extrinsic proteins
located outside the membrane
intrinsic proteins
protein partially immersed in the lipid bilayer
Concepts
Example of Plant Cell Types
flowers cells
fruit cells
flavorful compounds that attract fruit-eating/seed-dispersing animals
produce sugars, aromas,
carpel cells
indirectly involved in producing egg cells
stamen cells
indirectly involved in producing sperm cells
nectary cells
sugars that attract pollinator
scent cells
fragrances that attract pollinators
petal cells
pigments that attract pollinators
vascular cells
transport
organic molecules
minerals
water
root epidermal cells
collect water and minerals
green leaf cells
collect solar energy by photosynthesis
epidermal gland cells
produce poisons that inhibit animals from harming plants
protection
epidermis
cutin and wax are barriers against fungi and insects
water retention
cells of shoot/root tips
produce new protoplasm
cell division
Division of Labor
allows the entire organism to become more efficient
Unicellular Organism
Multicellular Organism
composed of more than one cell
Organelles
mitochondria
chloroplasts
nuclei
Chapter 13: Soils and Mineral Nutrition
Storage of Minerals Within Plants
seeds store minerals in protein bodies
minerals
complex of protein
all parts of a plant store minerals in the central vacuoles of cells
other mineral nutrients
sulfates
phosphates
Nitrogen Metabolism
Obtaining Nitrogen from Animals
ant-plants
flower plant&ferns reduced nitrogen
solanopteris
hydnophytum
myrmecodia
carnivorous plants
reduced nitrogen by catching animals
Other Aspects of Prokaryotes and Nitrogen
nitrifying bacteria
oxidize ammonium to nitrite
nitrosococcus
nitrosomonas
oxidize nitrite to nitrate
nitrococcus
nitrobacter
Nitrogen Assimilation
ammonium into organic molecules
Nitrogen Reduction
oxidation state
many other biological compounds
nucleic acids
amino acids
NO3-
reducing nitrogen in nitrare ion
Nitrogen Fixation
nitrogenase
enzyme uses N2 as a substrate
human manufacturing
conversion N2 gas into
ammonium
nitrite
nitrate
Soils and Mineral Availability
soils are derived from rock
weathering
chemical
fungi
plant
acid produced by decaying bodies
chemical reactions
physical
produces sizes of soil particles
breakdown of rock
ice is an important agent
temperature changes
water movement
wind
Mycorrhizae and the Absorption of Phosphorus
mycorrhiza
benefit to plant
provide phosphorous
fungi from symbiotic
The Endodermis and Selective Absorption of Substances
endodermis
apoplastic diffusion in roots
prevent uncontrolled
Soil Acidity
acid rain
acid precipitation
streams
destroying forests
silent killer
concentration of free protons
soil ph
affect chemical
Cation Exchange
must first freely dissolved in soil
roots cannot absorb
loosely bound to micelle surfaces
Mineral Deficiency Diseases
Mobile Elements
salvaged and moved to growing regions
translocated to younger tissue
sulfur
potassium
phophorus
nitrogen
magnesium
chlorine
immobile Elements
mineral loss through crop removal
related mobility of the essential element
iron
calcium
Boron
symptoms appear in young leaves or older leaves
Symptoms of Deficiency Diseases
change in color
plant suffer from a scarcity show smyptoms
necrosis
fungal infections
vrial
bacteria
death of patches of tissue
chlorosis
often brittle and papery
tend to yellowish
leaves lack chlorophyll
particular element lacking
Causes of Deficiency Diseases
development are seriously disrupted by a scarcity
under natural conditions
all type of soil
Essential Elements
called major/ macro essential elements
research in mineral nutrition
hydroponic solution
carefully controlled
grow inn plant
Criteria for Essentiality
Three basic criteria to be considered essential
much be acting within the pant
no substitute can be effective
normal plant development through full life cycle
Concepts
important concept
and complex organic compounds in their foods
must obtain minerals
one simple carb
no animal is able to survive on minerals
chemicals present in water, air and soil
plant metabolism is based on sunlight
mineral nutrition
cover type of plant metabolism
used immediately as it is
absorbed from the soil
derived from rock minerals
all organisms need elements
magnesium
phosphorus
nitrogen
calcium
sulfur
Chapter 12: Transport Processes
Long-Distance Transport: Xylem
Control of Water Transport by Guard Cells
Water Transport Through Xylem
embolism
between two portions
air bubble
cavitation
water column breaks
broken cable
H+ broken over large region
transcuticular transpiration
water lost directly through the cuticle
transstomatal transpiration
water loss
cohesion-tension hypothesis
widely accepted model of process
Properties of Water
adheres firmly to soil particles
adhesive
molecule interact with many substances
cohesive
liquid water
Long-Distance Transport: Phloem
callose
within uninjured phloem
P-protein
P for phloem
sinks
extremely diverse
transport phloem sap
STM/CC complex
several companion cells
conducting cells
polymer trap mechanism
disaccharides but not to polysaccharides
conducting cell plasma membranes
permeable to monosaccharides
actively transported
sources
nutrients
water
pressure flow hypothesis
Shorts-Distance Intercellular Transport
Guard Cells
#
potassium ions(K+)
apoplast
intercellular spaces
small molecules move easily through both wall
symplast
all protoplasm of one plant
Transfer Cells
outgrowths
ridge-like
friger-like
smooth walls
larger membrane
Motor Cells
#
similar to guard cells
joints cells
reorient themselves by flexing & floding
many other species move slowly
prayer plant
Oxalis
sensitive plant
Mimosa pudica
Water Potential
matric potential
water adhesion to nondissolved structures
soil particles
membranes
cell walls
Ψm
osmotic potential
related # of particles in solution
effect solutes have on water Ψ
Ψπ
megapascals (MPa)/ bars
measured units of pressure
pressure potential
Ψp
water potential
free energy
elevated
put under pressure
can heat
symbol Ψ
chemical potential
Cell and Water Movement
lysis
plant cells never burst
animal cells often burst in pure water
Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active Transport
intracellular transport
relatively permanent
long periods time
active transport
molecule extremely concentrated on receiving side
molecular pumps
aquaporins
protein channel
three types of membranes
selectively permeable
allow only certain substances pass
completely impermeable
not allow anything pass through
freely permeable
allow solutes pass through
duffusion
through a membrane
osmosis
random movement of particles
simplest
Concepts
isolation mechanisms
essential if transport
inhibit movement of substances
basic type of processes
long-distance transport
between cells not close
short-distance transport
involves distances of few cell diameter or less
entire organisms transport
other nutrients from one organ to another
fruits
flowers
leaves
roots
minerals
carbohydrates
water
specific transport occurs
acetyl groups
protons
enzymes transport electrons
Chapter 26 : Community Ecology
Beneficial Interactions Between Species
primary succession
organisms become established on newly created substrates
facilitation plays a role in succession
nurse plants
more favorable to the survival of seedling of other plants as compared other nearby not below
small area of habitat immediately below themselves
facilitates
#
first organism the presence of the other
facilitation
one organism helps another without receiving any benefit
mutualism relationship
various organism within a
community often interact in way are beneficial
two organisms interact such that both benefit
Interconnectedness of Species: Food Chains and Food Webs
keystone species
presence or absence of certain species
energy flow web
extremely difficult to construct energy flow webs for real communities
food web
network of numerous interrelation ships
trace the food sources of each of those prey species
trace all the prey of the top carnivores
food chain
plant species that supports them
identify mai prey
simplest is choose one predator
Metapopulations in Patchy Environments
assisted dispersal
released into the new area
animals are captured in one area
called assisted migration
fugitive species
colonizing more patches before it diet out in old ones
survives by colonizing new patches, flourishing temporarily
common model of metapopulations
population within individual patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
some patches are occupied by the species whereas other suitable patches are not
region environment is composed of many discrete patches in species can live
sink habitat
low quality one
source habitat
high-quality patch
Predator-Prey Interactions
Competition Between Species
resource
consumed by an organism
substance or factor that can lead to increased growth rates as it increased
invasive
species increase from very low population density with competitor present
interference competition
one organism restricts another organism's access to resources even though the first might not
example
bracken ferns produce large leaves up to 3m long that emerge from a subterranean rhizome one petioles as must as 1m tall
exploitation competition
making it less available for other organisms
resource competition occurs wen the organisms actually consume a shared resource
Apparent Competition
plants often face the problem that many herbivores will eat plant
plant are not actually competing for and using a resource
Predator Selection Among Multiple Prey
optimal diet model
make four predictions
optimal foraging theory has produced
#
optimal foraging theory
examine the interactions between these factors in an attempt to understand why herbivores eat the plants do while ignoring others.
One Predator, One Prey
fixed quota harvesting
such as
no matter how long it takes or how much effort is required
certain number of tons of fish per fleet
one deer per hunter
fisherman or hunters are allowed to harvest a particular amount
fixed effort harvesting
population health is determined by amount of fish or deer
maximum sustained yield
would obtain
species would be stable
harvest just enough of species to keep the population density
paradox of enrichment
might important factor in the loss of species diversity when a habitat is "improved"
zero growth isocline
line indicating population stability
prey-dependent
predator's functional response is dependent on prey density
feeding rate will be faster if there are more prey individuals available
functional response
feeding rate refers to hoe quickly a predator find a new prey individual
handling time refers to the amount of time needed to actually consume the prey
Diversity
checklist
all national parks and wildlife preserves have
simply a count of the species present
first approach to quantifying community diversity is done by measuring species richness
Diversity and Latitude
ecological explanation
not the entire explanation
satisfying
varies with latitude
diversity with scale
Diversity and Scale
species abundance distribution
plot the number of species in each abundance class
species-area relationship
S=cA^z
species richness
relationship between area
scale
common observation
Concept
habitat loss and habitat fragmentation
mine for minerals
build towns
still need to farm
even though we are trying to live more harmoniously with nature
community restoration
mountain lions across the Rio Grande River from Mexico into Big Bend National Park in Texas
encouraging the migration of bears
reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone National park
climax community
stability returns
undergoes succession until it becomes spruce-fir forest
succession
more or less predictable sequence of change
community
group of species occur together at same time/place
Chapter 20: Nonvascular Plants: Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts
Division Anthocerotophyta: Hornworts
hornworts
hidden by grasses&other herbs
inconspicuous thalloid plants that grow on moist oil
group of small
The Sporophyte Generation
similar between sporophytes of hornworts&those of mosses or liverworts are not easy to find
The Gametophyte Generation
few as three or four protonema cells are produced before the gametophyte phase is established in most species
at least along the edges
always thin
Division Hepatophyta: Liverworts
liverworts
small plants that have ab alternation of heteromorphic generations
The Sporophyte Generation
elasters
within the sporangium
elongate cells with spring-shaped walls
single
some cells do not undergo meiosis but rather differentiate
The Gametophyte Generation
antheridiophore
male gametophores of
Marchantia
Produce an umbrella-shaped outgrowth
archegoniophores
droop downward
apex is a set of radiating fingers that project outward
stalked
thallus
no leaves
no stems
body without roots
thalli
plural
thallose liverworts
leafy liverworts
thin leaves on a slender stem
greatly resembles that of a moss
orders Jungermanniales&Haplomitriales
Division Bryophyta: Mosses
Metabolism and Ecology
small size and lack of conducting tissues are two critical factors
The Sporophyte Generation
calyptra
apex of the sporangium in many species is covered
seta
setae
plural
between the foot and sporangium is a narrow stalk
The Gametophyte Generation
hydroids
conduct water&dissolved minerals
innermost cortex is composed of cells
primarily the family polytrichaceae
gametophores
tightly appresses&forming dense mounds
Grimmia Pohlia
many moss plants grow close together
leafy stems
mosses
ubiquitous
occurs in all parts of the world & in almost every environment
Classification of Nonvascular Plants
three distinct divisions
hornworts
#
division Anthocerotophyta
mosses
#
division Bryophyta
liverworts
#
division Hepatophyta
Characters of Nonvascular Plants
several types of lichens
"reindeer moss"
Usnea
Bryonia
Alectoria
important understand clearly what
nonvascular plants are not
Tillandsia usneoides
not true moss
even to most botanists
relatively unfamiliar
liverworts
mosses
Concepts
plants divided into
spermatophytes
have both vascular tissue and seeds
vascular cryptogams
have vascular tissue but not seeds
nonvascular plants
called bryophytes
history of true plants
woody growth
leaves
origin of seeds
development of vascular tissues xylem and phloem
their adaptation to terrestrial habitats
origin from green algae
Chapter 18 Classification and Systematics
The Major Lines of Evolution
all organisms are grouped into three domains
Eukarya
Archaea
Bacteria
with cyanobacteria
kingdom plantae
establishing the clade of true plants
some became adapted to living on land
approximately 400 million year ago
early algae continued to diversity
grade classification
"protistans" were placed together b/c they had a low level of evolutionary advancement
as opposed to a clade
old classification of protista
Taxonomic Studies
isotypes
sent to many herbaria around the world
as similar as possible to the type specimen
other specimens
prevent a recurrence of disaster
Other Types of Classification Systems
Classification Systems for Fossils
combines features of both artificial&natural systems
used for fossil organisms
third type of classification
form genera
structure are classified together
all fossils with the same basic form
Artificial Systems of Classification
chosen as the basis of classification
often very easy to observe
several key characters
Cladistics
homoplasies
analogous features
should never be used to conclude that plants are closely related
synapomorphies
similar to each other b/c they have descended from a common ancestral feature
homologous features
cladistics
evolutionary relationships
method of analyzing these phylogenetic
Cladograms and Taxonomic Categories
eudicots
informal name
rest of the dicots
basal angiosperms
have not been given a formal taxonomic name
Understanding Cladograms
unresolved polychotomy
usually the various species are shown as arising from the same node
sometimes there is simply not enough data
parsimony
do not make a hypothesis any more complicated that it need to be
simplest possible hypothesis
two branches
red flowers
ancestral condition
white flowers are derived conditions
apomorphy
common ancestor
all of the branches that extend from any particular point represent the descendants of the original group
represents the divergence of one taxon into two
cladogram
diagram that shows evolutionary patterns by means of a s series of branches
Levels of Taxonomic Categories
monophyletic
all descendants of that common ancestor are in the same genus
all of species included in the genus are related to each other by a common ancestor
critical concern is the genera are natural
inheritance of acquired characteristics
unfortunately J.B.P. de lamarck at this time presented his theory of evolution
binomial system of nomenclature
the basis of our present
species epithet
every species have both a genus name
species
ideally and theoretically is set of individuals closely related by descent from a common ancestor
Concept
natural system of classification
assigning plant names on the basis of phylogenetic relationships
system in which closely related organisms are classified together
systematics
have a system of names
nomenclature
reflect their relationship accurately
understand each of these evolutionary lines
goal of modern plant
phylogeny
basically the evolutionary history of each member of the group
hereditary relationship of any group of organisms constitute
Chapter 9: Flowers and Reproduction
Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal
Classification of Fruit TYpes
indehiscent fruits
such as
nut
samara
achene
caryosis
do not break open and release the seeds
dehiscent fruits
such as
schizocarp
caspule
follicle
legume
break open and release the seeds
further classification of dry fruits emphasizes fruit opening
dry fleshy
fleshy fruits are eaten during the natural seed distribution process
not typically eaten by the natural seed-distributing animals
emphasis is placed on the fruit
True Fruits and Accessory Fruits
multiple fruit
development all of the individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
pineapple
mulberries
fings
aggregate fruit
rasperries
separate carpels of one gynoecium fuse during development
simple fruit
fruit develop from a single ovary or the fused ovaries of one flower
most common kind
accessory fruit
only the innermost part is true fruit derived from carpels
bulk of the fruit is enlarged base of sepals and petals
used if any from inferior ovaries
false fruit
true fruit
used to refer to fruits contain only ovarian tissue
"pericarp" and "fruit" have been applied to both types of fruit
Inflorescences and Pollination
two basic arrangements occur
indeterminate inflorescences
new flowers still being initiated at the apex
lowest or outermost flowers open first
determinate inflorescences
end is possibilities for continued growth
has only a limited potential for growth b/c the inflorescence apex is converted to a flower
inflorescence
but no hundred close together
one small flower may be overlocked
give collective visual signal tto pollinators
Flower Structure and Cross-Pollination
Wind-Pollinated Flowers
species
all conifers
hickories
oaks
grasses
pollination is aided by growth pattern of the plant population
totally distinct set of modifications is adaptive
Ovary Position
perigynous
partially buried ovaries are half-inferior
intermediate
superior ovary/hypogynous parts
obviously above the flower parts
no fusion to ovary occurs
more common arrangement
two terms describe
epigynous
inferior ovary
result if receptacle tissue grows upward around the ovary
Animal-Pollinated Flowers
zygomorphic
flowers and pollinators have coevolved is such a way that the flowers are now also bilaterally symmetrical
actinomorphic/regular
any longitudinal cut through the middle produces two halves that are mirror images of each other
most flowers are radially symmetrical
stems and root
coevolution
the insect for efficient exploitation of the flower
flower become adapted for visitation by a particular insect
had dramatic impact on the evolution of flower plant
Monoecious and Dioecious Species
monoecious
tassels bear numerous staminate flowers
ears are clusters of fertilized carpellate flowers
species include cattails and corn
monoecy
condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plants as carpellate flowers
nonessential organs
sepals and petals do not produce spores
perfect flower
even though it may lack either sepals/petals or both
imperfect flowers
flowers lack either or both essential organs are not only incomplete
Stigma and Pollen Incompatibility
compatibility barriers
chemical reactions between pollen&carpels that prevent pollen growth
self-pollination is inhibited
Stamen and Style Maturation Times
self-fertilization in flowers have both stamens and carpels is prevented if anthers&stigmas mature at different times
Cross-Pollination
self-pollination
pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower or another flower on the same plant
pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different individual
Sexual Reproduction
Fruit Development
pericarp
composed of one, two or all three layers
entire fruit wall
mesocarp
innermost layer
flesh
middle layer
exocarp
skin or peel
outer layer
Embryo and Seed Development
in torpedo stage, the embryo is elongate cylinder
hypocotyl
the root/shoot junction
epicotyl
embryonic stem
consisting of radicle
embryonic root
short axis is establushed
suspensor
crushed by the later growth of embryo¬ easily detectable in a mature seed
usually delicate&ephemeral in angiosperms
which pushes the embryo deep into the endosperm
Fertilization
endosperm
nourishes forms as much endosperms as a zygote
both coenocytic and cellular
karyogamy
fusion of the nuclei
plasmogamy
fusion of the protoplasts of gametes
syngamy of sperm&egg involved both
Gametophytes
microgametophyte
small lens-shaped generative cell
subsequently divides&forms two sperm cells
divides mitotically
microspores develop into micrgametophytes
produce a large vegetative cell
Flower Structure
incomplete flowers
flowers of
Begonia
not uncommon for flowers of certain species to lack one /two of the four basic floral appendages
complete flowers
carpels
stamens
petals
sepals
pedicel
the other flower part are attached
receptacle
very end of the axis
flower stalk
The Plant Life Cycle
syngamy/fertilization
produce the diploid zygote
gametes can fuse with other gametes in a process
sporophytes
have organs with cells in haploid of undergoing meiosis
like most adult animals
always diploid
sporophyte phase/sporophyte generation
just one phase of the plant life cycle
herbs
shrubs
trees
gametes
by meiosis
either sperms/eggs
diploid adults have sex organs that produce haploid sex cell
Asexual Reproduction
within angiosperms
numerous methods of asexual reproduction have evolved
fragmentation
individual parts become self-sufficient by establish adventitious roots
large spreading /vining plant grows to several meters in length
Concept
seeds
produced by sexual reproduction
often have a means of long-distance dispersal
bamboo fruits&seends are carried by winds
strawberries are eaten&the seeds later defecated
sexual reproduction
#
#
sex cells must move from one plant to another
two individuals are required
have negative aspects
with asexual reproduction
#
but during sexual reproduction
result in many new gene combinations
sex cells of one plant combine with those of one or several others
progeny are never more fit than the parent
reproduction serve two different function
generating new individuals are genetically different from the parents
produce offspring have identical copies of parental genes
Chapter 23: Seed Plants ll: Angiosperms
Eudicots
Asterid Clade
contain plants such as
morning glory
petunia
periwinkle
sunflower
the most derived large clade of eudicots
Rosid Clade
two large clades of rosids
malvids
eurosids II
fabids
called eurosids I
diverse with respect to vegetative body,flower,chemistry,ecology that is difficult to see they all related
take as a whole
many families
name for rose order rosales
Basal Eudicots
perisperm
surrounds the develop embryo
form a nutritive tissue
nucellus cells proliferate
anthocyanin pigments
all caryophyllales instead produce a group of water-soluble pigments
many families did not seem to fit well in either group
flower plants were assigned to either Monocots or Dicots
Monocots
#
early monocots diverged into a series of clades whose extant members are classified into approximately ten orders
tepals
perianth members
looks similar that rather than using the terms sepals&petals
three outer&inner members
Commelinoid Monocots
wall have unusual types of hemicelluloses&ultraviolet-flurescent compounds
they have unique types of epicuticular wax
differ from others in several unusual synapomorphies
four orders of monocots
Basal Angiosperms
uniaperturate
other basal angiosperms&monocots
pollen grains only have single germination pore
contain the living descendants of several groups that originated while angiosperms were still a young clade
Classification of Flowering Plants
Magnoliophyta
classify the entire group
species that is rare for an individual taxonomist to attempt to study
genera
large group with many families
basal angiosperms
monocot/eudicot divergence did not occur right away
early angiosperms diverged into several clades
monocots/eudicots
#
currently, almost all angiosperms are classified
flower plants began to follow two distinct lines of evolution
Changing Concepts About Early Angiosperms
wind-pollinated trees
considered the most relictual living flower plants
grouped together in "subclass Hamamelidae"
plane trees
oaks
elms
alders
generalized
these are arranged spirally
all parts
carpels
above the other parts
occur in superior position
stamens
petals
#
sepals
ranalean flower
Magnolia-type flower was relictual
C.E Bessey developed the hypothesis
approximately 100 years ago
Concept
other derived features carpels into single structure
zygomorphy
not radially symmetrical
flowers bilaterally symmetrical
sympetally
fusion of petals into one structure
pistil
secondarily vesselless
gymnosperm-like wood
derived feature that looks like a primitive one&misled us for years
tracheid-based
primitively vesselless
conundrum for many years
quite a few plants were considered to be basal angiosperms on basis woods without vessels
lacked vessels b/c their ancestors lacked
double fertilization
universal in flower plants
closed carpel
develops into a fruit that encloses the embryos as develop into seeds
angiosperm carpels
sometimes closing completely that no sign of a seam remains
sometimes leaving a visible suture
grow shuts
edges of sporophyll primordia crowd against each other
magnoliophyta
statement should be examined carefully
called the peak of plant evolution
occasionally
most derived
common to refer to angiosperms as the most advanced group of plants
often called the Angiospermophyta
Chapter 11 Energy Metabolism: Respiration
Respiratory Quotient
photosynthesis
measure the amount of gas exchanged during respiration
Fermentation of Alcoholic Beverages
Warnings
impulsive behaviior
addiction
death
toxic
lowers risk of heart disease
slows reaction speed
reduces a person's ability to focus
Spirits
A. amerocana
Agave tequilana
Beer
fermen starchy cereal grains
rice
corn
wheat
barley
Wine
fermen fruit juices
peach
elderberry
grapes Vitis vinifera
Total Energy Yield of Respiration
pentose phosphate pathway
0 to 12 ATP
2 to 6 NADH
aerobic glycolysis
FADH2
ATP
NADH
anaerobic glycolysis
2 ATP produced
Environmental and Internal Factors
Internal Regulation
Lack of Oxygen
Temperature
Types of respiration
Photorespiration
Respiration Of Lipids
B-oxidation
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Heat-Generating Respiration
thermogenic respiration
cyanide-resistant respiration
Aerobic Respiration
The Citric Acid Cycle
malate
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
fumarate
succinyl CoA
a-ketoglutarate
isocitrate
cis-aconitate
citrate
acetyl CoA
coenzyme A (CoA)
acetyl
glycolysis
NADH Shuttle
Anaerobic Repiration
fermentation
embden-meyerhoff pathway
glycolysis
acetaldehyde
lactate
latic acid
Chapter 5: Tissue and the Primary Growth of Stems
Stem growth and differentiation
subapical meristem
cells are
diviing
growing
below apical meristem
apical meristems
cell divides by
cytokinesis
mitosis
Internal Organization of Stems:
Arrangement of Primary Tissues
vascular bundles
xylem and phloem occur together
vascular tissues
#
phloem
minerals
sugar
xylem
minerals
waiter
cortex
interior to epidermis
epidermis
outermost surface of an herbaceous stem
cutin
cuticle
impermeable to water
fatty substance
External Organization of Stems
bulbs
garlic
daffodils
onions
fleshy leaves
short shoots
phyllotaxy
important positioning leaves
distichous
leaves located in two rows only
spiral
leaves not aligned with their nearest neighbors
whorled
three or more leaves per node
decussate
leaves located in four rows
opposite
leaves two per node
alternate
leaves one per node
terminal bud
extereme tip
bud scales
modified leaves
protect inside organs
axillary bud
dormant apical meristem
young leaves
leaf axil
above where leaves attach
stem
internodes
regions between nodes
nodes
where leaves are attached
Basic Types of Cells and Tissues
sclerenchyma
sclereids
more/less isodiametric
short
fibers
flexible
long
primary wall and thick secondary wall
elastic
collenchyma
primary wall is thin but remain
thickened in some areas(corners)
provides plastic support
elongating shoot tips
parenchyma
many functions
transfer cells
large scale molecular pumping
glandular cell
chlorenchyma cell
involved in photosynthesis
parenchyma tissue
soft part of plants
most common type of cell and tissue
Concepts
plant bodies
woody body (secondary plant body)
herbaceous body (primary plant body)
flowering plants
angiosperms
monocots
bromeliads
philodendrons
palms
attails
lilies
grasses
eudicots
maples
asters
roses
basal angiosperms
laurels
magnolias
waterlilies
largest division in the plant kingdom
297,000 species
body of an herb
roots
stems
leaves
Chapter 6: Leaves
Morphology and Anatomy of Other Leaf Types
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Insect Traps
plant obtain nitrogen
digest insects
Leaves with Kranz Anatomy
lack palisade parenchyma and spongy mesophyll
C4 photosynthesis
Tendrils
squash
cucumbers
peas
Spines
cacti
clusters
microscopic green leaves
Bud Scales
rarely compound
small
not photosynthesis
protections
Leaves of Conifers
perennial
thick cuticle
sclerophylls
conifers
simple
Sclerophyllous Foliage Leaves
type of species
yucca
agave
holly
barberry
edible
flexible
soft
produce sugars
Succulent Leaves
delicate leaves
adaptive
characteristic of species
Aizoaceae
Portulacaceae
Crassulaceae
External Structure of Foliage Leaves
rachis
extension of petiole
petiolule
compound leaf
blade divided into several part
simple leaf
just one part of blade
sheathing leaf base
flutter
flex
leaf base wraps around the stem
sessile leaf
instead petiolate
narrow
very long
small
petiole(stalk)
allow for air flow
holds blade in light
leaf blade
sheathing leaf base
flexible
no petiolate
ventral surface
adaxial
dorsa surface
vein
vascular bundles
abaxial
called lamina
Internal Structure of Foliage Leaves
Petiole
stipules
massive in stalky plants
part of leaf
leaf traces
transition between stem and lamina
more vascular bundles
Vascular Tissue
bundle sheath extension
have a mass of fibers above, below or both
large veins
bundle sheath
fibers arranged sheath
midrib
lateral veins
minor veins
large eudicot leaf
midvein
Mesophyll
ground tissue interior
spongy mesophyll
permits CO2 diffusion
loose aerenchyma
lower portion of the leaf
palisade parenchyma
upper surface
main photosynthetic tissue
called palisade mesophyll
Epidermis
protection
skin
transpiration
water loss
Concepts
leaves are part of the shoot system
stems
all different kinds and purpose for leaves
foliage leaves
storage(fleshy leaves of bulbs)
support tendrils
provide protection
spines
bud scales
involved in photosynthesis
green
flat
large
Initiation and Development of Leaves
Monocots
regenerations
protected
initiated expansion of shoot apical meristem cells from leaf primordium
eudicots
Basal Angiosperms and Eudicots
development
leaves produced through shoot apical meristem
leaf primordium
protoderm
fetus
Chapter 7: Roots
Other types of Roots and Root modifications
Roots of Strangler Figs
deposit the seeds of other trees
birds eat fruit of strangler figs
grow as epiphytes perched on host tree
Haustorial Roots of Parasitic Flowering Plants
haustoria
inadequate growth in soil
tristerix
Root Nodules and Nitrogen Fixation
root nodule
endodermis
vascular tissue
meristematic region
simple or complex
infection thread
extends to root's inner cortex
bacteria sits
nitrogen fixation
nitrogenous compounds
some prokaryotes use N2
Mycorrhizae
endomycorrhizal association
cell cannot pass Casparian strip
hyphae penetrate the root cortex cells as endodermis
ectomycorrhizal relationship
never invade cells
penetrate root cortex cells
fungal hyphae
Contractile Roots
many seed germinate
more contration
gladiolus
crinum
oxalis
Aerial Root of Orchids
dangle freely in the air
roots spread along surface of bark
epiphytic
Prop Roots
buttress roots
upper side grow faster
brace trunk
tropical tree
make contact with the soil
transport additional nutrients and water to stem
stem of monocot
wider
more vascular bundles
Strage Roots
perennials
many daisies
phlox
datura
biennial
celery
carrots
beets
long team storage
Internal Structure of Roots
Mature Portions of the Root
root pressure
water pressure from absorption
mineral pressure
passage cells
passageways absorption of minerals
suspected slow to develop
Zone of Maturation/Root Hair Zone
casparian strips
control minerals enter xylem
altered walls
endodermis
tangential walls
cortical cell differentiates
free access to vascular tissure
Zone of Elongation
older, larger cells develop to
metaphloem
metaxylem
tissue quite permeable
center provascular tissue
primary phloem
primary xylem
protoderm and differentiate onto epidermis
differentiate to visible pattern
similar to shoot's subapical meristem region
Root Apical Meristem
quiescent center
reserve of healthy cells
cells resistant to harfmul agents
toxic chemicals
radiation
inactive central region
root more orderly than the shoot
because of
axillary buds
leaf traces
leaf primordia
no disruptions
Root Cap
dynamic equilibrium
small and meristematic
specific structure
Origin and Development of Lateral Roots
not surface as axillary buds
root primordium
initiated deep within the root
Concepts
roots grow out of trunk
Mauritia
Crysophila
tarpoots
plant's main site of carb storage during winter
radishes
beets
carrots
Three Functions
producing hormones
absorption
anchoring
External Structure of Roots
#
Structure of Individual Roots
mucigel
lubricated
secreted by root cells
root cap
apical meristem of root
protected thick layer of cells
Organization of Root Systems
adventitious roots
not limited to monocots
increase
transportion
absorptive
branches
lots of root
radicle
largest out of lateral roots
taproot develops
carrots
embryonic root
lateral roots/branch roots
sweet potato
fibrous root system
Chapter 17: Population Genetics and Evolution
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Evolution and the Origin of Life
The presence of Life
transitions from completely inorganic compound to living bacteria
chemosynthetic theory postulated a long series for slow
Oxygen
two profound consequences
created conditions that selected for evolution of aerobic respiration
allowed the world rust
Early MEtabolism
modifying only a few molecules
absorb all material from ocean
complete heterotrophs
Aggregation and Organization
first aggregate
controlled only by relative solubility
basically at random
Formation of Polymers
polymerization required high concentration of monomers
early ocean have polymerize if life were arise
Chemicals Produced Chemosynthetically
lunar samples reveals in nonliving environments
direct analysis of meteorites
Conditions on Earth Before the Origin of Life
time available for the origin of life
chemosynthetic origin of life basically no limits
reducing atmosphere
presence of powerful reducing agents
due to lack of molecular oxygen
second atmosphere
most of first atmosphere was lost into space
hydrogen such a light gas
Speciation
speciation
natural selection has new species to evolve
Convergent Evolution
have undergone
two evolve to the point that resemble each other strongly
Divergent Speciation
adaptive radiation
few million years
special case divergent evolution in species rapidly diverges into many species over an extremely short time
prezygotic isolation mechanisms
act even before zygote can be formed
sympatric speciation
two group become reproductively
isolated even though then grow together
biological reproductive barriers
any biological phenomenon prevent successful gene flow
allopatric
speciation results
original species physically divided into two or more population cannot interbreed
geographic speciation
abiological reproductive barrier
nonliving feature prevents two populations from exchange gene
any physical
reproductively isolated
two fundamental
biological reproductive barriers
abiological
if alleles arise in one part of the range o not reach individuals in other
divergent speciation may occur
Phyletic Speciation
vegetative propagation
too contribute to gene flow
mobile species reproduce vegetatively
small
seed dispersal
many species have long-distance dispersal mechanisms
some plant fall close to the parent
pollen transfer
all alleles of plant are present in pollen grains
each carry one full haploid genome
two fundamental
divergent speciation
#
million of years often required for a species to evolve into new species
phyletic speciation
species gradually becomes changes must be considered new species
Rates of Evolution
very rapid speciation occur in group of aster in Hawaii
spread rapidly in unpopulated island
reproduced
thrived
aster seed arrived
shortly after Kauai formed 5.2 million years ago
many species of seedless plants
ferns
equisetum
lycopods
not typically the case
allelic composition of population could change rapidly
Population Genetics
Multiple Selection Pressures
reduced reproduction not caused by single factor
such as pathogenic fungus
loss of individuals
gene pool
total # of allele in sex cells individuals
type concept of species
base on types
later 1800s
population concept of species
true of plant
similar ranges of variation occur in all species
manner in which abundance of particular allele
remains the same with time
decreases
increases
abundance of different allele within population
Situations in which Natural Selection Does Not Operate
gained by considering several cases in does not operate
Factors that Cause the Gene Pool to Change
factors that are not plant of natural selection
accurately if the certain factors not part of natural selection
voluntary decision making
planning
intention
purpose
understood more clearly
natural selection
important factor in evolution that must be given careful attention
usually described as survival of the fittest
less adapted do not
individuals are most adapted to environment survive
most significant factor causing gene pool changes
artificial selection
example
domestic animals
selective breeding of crop plants
humans purposefully change allele frequency of gene pool
accidents
many phenomena qualify
collision of large meteorite with earth
organism cannot adapt
mutation
new alleles increase
existing alleles decrease in frequency
mutation occur continually
all genomes are subjected to mutagenic factors
Concept
most part by natural selection
making it less or more adapted to environment than other without allele or gene
new genes to arise affect fitness of individual
mutations cause new alleles
evolution
millions of years produce obvious change in species
extremely slow process require thousands of generations
gradual conversion of one species
several new speies
in some cases
into one
Chapter 21: Vascular Plants Without Seeds
The Microphyll Line of Evolution: Lycophytes
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Extant Genera
Lycopodium
"club moss"
"group pine"
ligule
upper surface of Selaginela leaves
selaginellas can be distinguished from lycopodiums by a small flap of tissue
Heterospory
cones/strobili
strobilus
singular
many extinct&extant lycophytes sporangia are clustered together in compact groups
Morophology
microphylls
"lycophyll" has been suggested recently
clarity the term
enations in the division Lycophyta
"leaf" is an ambiguous term
The Megaphyll Line of Evolution: Euphyllophytes
Ferns
leaf trace
leaving a small segment of the vascular cylinder as just parenchyma
region is leaf gap
diverges from the siphonostele
leptosporangiate ferns
rest of he monilophytes have more 12000 species
have 15 species of living plants
Equisetophytes
monopodial growth
true roots
true leaves
lateral branches
main trunk
sporangiophore
sporangia always occur in group of five to ten located on an umbrella-shaped
reproductive structures in Equisetum are specialized
horsetails/scouring rushes
with 15 extant species
Equisetum
one genus
several genera of extinct plants
Monilophytes
two sister clades
lignophytes
wood plants
monilophytes
euphyllophytes
three synapomorphies
have 30-kilobase inversion in the large single-copy region of their plastid DNA
have megaphylls
roots have exarch xylem
Origin of Megaphylls(Euphylls)
euphyllophytes
megaphyllous plants from monophyletic clade
sporophyll
leaf-like structure
sporangium-bearing
megaphylls
equisetophytes
ferns
present in all seed planys
leaves that evolved from branch systems
Trimerophytes
pseudomonopodial branching
single main trunk rather than series of dichotomies
Pertica displays
overtopping
#
Trimerophytes had unequal branching in which one stem was more vigorous
Early Vascular Plants
Zosterophyllophytes
enations
several zosterophyllophytes had smooth surface
thin scales
ranged from quite small to long
three characteristics make us think they were a distinct group
branched dichotomously
sporangia opened transversely along the top edge naked(smooth)
not terminal
sporangia were lateral
many similar to rhyniophytes
small herb without secondary growth
name after the principal genus Zosterophyllum
another group of early vascular plants
Rhyniophytes
plant of Cooksonia were homosporous
&no separate microspores&megap[ores
rhyniophytes
fossils have general characters
a genus of extinct plants
earliest fossils that definitely were vascular land plants belong to Cooksonia
equal dichotomous branching
both branches being of equal size and vigor
The Term "Vascular Cryptogams"
vascular cryptogams
lack seeds their reproduction is hidden(crypto)
have vascular tissue
ferns and fern allies
Concept
transformation theory
after the dibiontic life cycle originated
in life cycle with alternation of isomorphic generations
vascularized
more complex
both gametophyte&sporophyte became larger
an alternative hypothesis
interpolation hypothesis
small sporophyte came into existence when zygote germinated mitotically instead of meiotically
monobiontic
produce more spores that grow into new gametophytes
zygote can't undergoes mitosis&can'y grow into sporophytes
zygote undergoes only meiosis
only one multicellular generation
Coleochaete
some algae
dibiontic life cycle
multiceullular sporophyte
each species has multicellular gametophyte
fossil plants
all extant plant
Chapter 10 Energy Metabolism: photosynthesis
concepts
photoautotrophs
few bacteria capable of photosynthesis
cyanobateria
all green plants
heterotrophs
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotes
all fungi
all completely parasitic plants
all animals
environmental and internal factors
crassulacean acid metabolism
C4 metabolism
photorespiration
water
leaf structure
light
sunlight
photosynthesis
anabolic metabolism
the stroma reactions
carboxylation
RuBP carboxylase
acceptor molecule
C3 cycle
the light-dependent reactions
the nature of pigments
accessory pigments
chlorophyll a
leaves of higher plants
found in algae
the nature of light
quanta
electromagnetic radiation spectrum
microwaves
radio waves
infrared light
ultraviolet light
X-rays
gamma rays
Energy and reducing power
other electron carriers
plastocyanin
loosely associated with chloroplast membranes
move a short distance
small protein that carries electrons
plastoquinones
transport electrons over short distances within a membrane
cytochromes
small proteins
reducing power
oxidizing agents
NADP+
NAD+
oxidation state
energy carriers
occurs in chloroplasts in light
photophosphorylation
ATP
ADP
substrate-level phosphorylation
guanosine triphosphate
Chapter 25: Populations and Ecosystems
The Structure of Populations
r- and K-Selection
k-selection
k-selected species
bristle-cone pines
douglas firs
redwoods
select for phenotypes very different from those beneficial
population is close to carrying capacity
#
conditions in crowded habitat
r-selection
r-selected species
disturbed habitat gradually changes back into crowed that on longer suitable for pioneer r species
small shrubby perennials
typically are annuals
disturbance usually produces r conditions
Age Distribution: Demography
carrying capacity
symbolized by K
number of individuals in each population live in particular ecosystem is limited
two factors affect the possible rate
intrinsic rate of natural increase or biotic potential
number of offspring produced by an individual that live long enough to reproduce under ideal conditions
generation time
increase rapidly
annuals have a generation of 1 year or less
affect the rapidity of population growth
length of time from the birth of one individual
until birth it first offspring
age distribution
demography
old individuals
middle-aged
relative proportions of young
Geographic Distribution
boundaries of the geographic range
local geographic distribution
allelochemics
release from the plant of chemicals
at least theoretically
zone can be established
inhibition is allelopathy
uniform distributions
all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbors
tree plantations
types that occur in orchards
clumped distributions
rarely average
spacing between plants is either small or large
random distribution
identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
no obvious
limiting factor
increase in photosynthesis
increasing the amount of light
medium level of carbon dioxide
described for photosynthesis
The Structure of Ecosystems
Trophic Levels
carbon flow
#
energy flow
finally to the decomposers
carnivore trophic level
plant eaten
energy and carbon compounds move to herbivore trophic level
secondary consumers
herbivores are preyed on by carnivores
primary consumers
called secondary producers
primary producers
obvious reasons
first step of any food web
autotrophs
trophic levels
basically feeding levels
Species Composition
species' tolerance range are broad or narrow
soil is rich or poor
depends on whether the climate is mild or stressful
diversity of species that coexist in ecosystem
refers to the number
Temporal Structure
can encompass seasons or decades
time span can be as short as a day
changes an ecosystem undergoes with time constitute
Physiognomic Structure
three most useful categories
herbs
shrubs
trees
Physiognomic Structure
distribution in relation to each other physical environment constitute
shape of organisms
physical size
Plants in Relationship to Their Habitats
Biotic Components of the Habitat
organisms other than plants
predation
other is harmed
relationship in which one species benefits
commensal relationships
common between plant and animals
other is unaffected
which one species benefits
transplant experiments
performed
plant from both sites may be grow together
common garden
plant from each site are transplanted to alternate site
other plant species
competitive exclusion
from the ecosystem by superior competitors
whichever species is less adapted
mutualism
if it disadvantageous
competition
basically beneficial for both organisms
possibility for interaction
occur together
either just one or several species
several individuals
the plant itself
part of it
modifies the habitat
neutral to the continued success of that species in it own habitat
detrimental
beneficial
just by being in a habitat
Abiotic Components of the habitat
disturbance
phenomena
often radical change in ecosystem
produce a significant
such as
floods
snow avalanches
landslides
fires
latitude and altitude
higher latitudes
on mountain tops are similar
only near midsummer
sun is only rarely overhead
latitude contributes
many factor to abiotic environment
soil factors
B horizon
area where materials from the A horizon accumulate
C horizon
rock fragments
composed mostly of parent rock
A horizon
breaks down
consists of little and debris
sometimes called zone of leaching
uppermost
pioneers
must tolerate severe conditions
first plants invade a new soil
climate
tolerance range
between the low and high extremes
not live in climatic conditions outside
most species are restricted to certain regions primarily
critically important to all organisms
Concept
ecosystem
nonliving environment
along with the physical
community
numerous populations of other plant species
prokaryotes
protists
fungi
animals
population does not exist in isolation
all populations together constitute
population
together they constitute
other individuals of the same species
individual plant never exist in isolation in a habitat
Chapter 27: Biomes
World Climate
presence of atmosphere and oceans
result of titled axis of rotation
Oceanic Distribution of Heat
lessening the temperature gradient that would otherwise exit
from the tropics to the poles
counterclockwise south of the equator
Atlantic ocean basins in four giant circular
clock-wise in Northern Hemisphere
air circulation patterns drive water in Pacific Ocean
Atmospheric Distribution of Heat
rain shadow
decreased rain on landward side of mountains
continental climate
large islands
Puerto Rico
Guam
Hawaiian islands
size of land mass influences the weather is recessives
desert islands
smallest islands
Bahamas are too flat to affect the air
small islands such as
Florida Keys
low-lying
rain forms
rising air cools
often with no fresh water streams or lakes
extremely dry
Effects of Earth's Tilt
earth continues orbit
axis of rotation points less toward the sun
axis of rotation is exactly perpendicular to plane
earth's axis of rotation
tilted 23.5 degrees away from perpendicular to orbital plane
The Current World Biomes
Tropical Biomes
high temperatures and moisture
cause much more rapid soil transformation here than in other biomes
tropical rain forests
Guam have extensive rain forests
Putero Rico
Hawaii
occur close to equator
Polar Biomes
taiga
term frequently used in the West
Russian name for this biome
boreal coniferous forest
boreal means northern, just as austral means southern
just south of arctic tundra is broad band of forest
arctic tundra
averaging only about 10C
temperatures are cool
short growing season of 3 months or less
permafrost
soil is permanently frozen
Dry Temperate Biomes
alpine tundra
located above the highest point
timberline
at which trees survive on a mountain
deserts
where rainfall is less than 25 cm/yr
driest regions of temperate areas
chaparral
well-known shrubland
in California
shrublands
similar except that trees are replaced by shrubs
savanna
if grass grows between the trees
woodland
do not form a closed canopy
similar to forest except that trees are widely spaced
grassland
often referred to prairie
More accurately
beyond Canadian border
extending from the Texas coast
entire central plains of North America
Moist Temperate Biomes
evergreen forest
coast of the Carolinas
top of Florida
along northern portions of the Gulf States
occurs at southern edge of oak/pine
component of the temperate deciduous forest
temperate deciduous forest
relatively high precipitation in all seasons
warm but not hot summer
biome is one with cold winters
Montane forests
subalpine forests at higher elevation
occur base of there mountains
temperate rain forest
dominated by giant long-lived conifers
Concept
two of overriding importance
positions of the continents
world climate
continental drift
warming and continents shift position
climate undergoes cycles of cooling
tundra
tropical rain forests
temperate forests
more complex grasslands
biomes vary from extremely simple
biomes
#
extensive grouping of many ecosystems of dominant plants
Earth's land surface is covered
Continental Drift
Past Positions of the World's Continents
Tethys Sea
between the northern and southern continents
formation of a waterway
Pangaea
all land on entire globe was located
together as one supercontinent
Gondwanaland
composed of
Africa
Antarctica
Australia
India
South America
hemisphere was giant continent
Cambrian Period
several separate continents were distributed in a vast ocean
nothing lived on land
all life was still aquatic
Present Position of the World's Continents
if continent is small and flat
bring precipitation to all parts
moist oceanic air can blow across it
if continents occupied different positions
cause entire earth have altered climate
most important factors in determining the climate of region
region's latitude
