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Course Diagram, Ch 22 Seed Plants I: Seed Plants Without Flowers ("…

- - - - long needle leaves
    - - tiny papery leaves occur here
- - - - cycadeoids, all extinct
    - - cycads, extant
    - - seed ferns all extinct
- - - - holding area
    - - hole in integument that permitted sperm cells to swim to the egg
    - - layer of tissue that projects upward
- - - - form of primary growth
  - - - storage roots
- - - - regions of aerenchymatous
  - - - layers of cork cells
    - - cell matures into layer of parenchyma
    - - outer cell
    - - new cambium
- - - - lighter, moister outer region
    - - dark wood
  - - - vessels located throughout it
    - - vessels restricted to early wood
    - - 1 year growth
    - - first wood formed
  - - - procumbent cells
        
        no direct connection with axial cells
      - up right cells
    - - few or no fibers
    - - wood of all basal angiosperms and eudicots
    - - develops from ray initials
    - - tracheary elements
        
        longitudinal conduction of water through wood
      - derived from the fusiform
    - - all cells formed interior to vascular cambium
- - - - without any horizontal pattern
    - - evolved more recently
      - regular horizontal rows
  - - - increase number of cambia cells
      - anticlinal walls
    - - periclinal wall
  - - - ray initials
      - fusiform initials
    - - connects on each side with fascicular cambia
    - - continue dividing
      - fascicle= bundle
- - - - extent
      - position
      - nature
  - - - carries genes that code for proteins
      - like insertion sequence
    - - & splicing it into DNA somewhere else
      - contains genes that code for enzymes
        
        involved in cutting insertion sequence
    - - something that causes a mutation
- - - - subscripts are uses
      - polymorphic
      - 900 existing sites
  - - - homozygous dominant
    - - cross involving one cross known to be homozygous recessive for the trait being considered
    - - presence of one allele completely makes presence of homologous allele
  - - - other possible phenotype of the heterozygote that is less likely to be than the dominant
    - - phenotype of the heterozygote is like the parent of the effective alleles
  - - - does not represent outcome of any one cross, just posibilility
      - test that can be used to test genotypes and phenotypes
    - - plant's own pollen is used to fertilized its eggs
  - - - heterozygous phenotype differs from both homozygous phenotypes
    - - two different alleles for one gene
    - - two identical alleles for a gene
    - - offspring of F1
    - - offspring of the parents
    - - parents
    - - single character is analyzed and studied
- - - - one equals 1% of probability that crossing over will occur between them
      - measure of separation of genes on a chromosome
    - - formed from crossing over of the homologous chromosomes and recombination of alleles
        
        parental type chromosomes
    - - set of genes that do not undergo independent assortment, being part of one chromosome
    - - genes located close to each other on a chromosome undergo crossing over only rarely, so they're linked
  - - - alleles of one gene moved independently of the alleles of the other genes
- - - - various copies happen through duplication and may evolve independently
      - all located within a single haploid genome
      - set of several copies of an ancestral gene
    - - genes within single species that evolved from same ancestral gene
    - - plants with more than two sets of chromosomes
  - - - pattern of spots, stripes, or patches in leaves or other organs, caused by plastid mutations
    - - zygote obtains all its plastids and mitochondrion genomes from maternal parent
      - (Maternal Inheritance)
    - - alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to progeny
- - - - fruit does not break open and release seed
    - - break open and release seeds
    - - fruits that are eaten during the natural seed distribution process
    - - not typically eaten by natural seed distributing animals
  - - - all individual fruits of a florescence fuse into one fruit
    - - separate carpels of one gynoecium fuse during development
    - - fruit develops from a single ovary
    - - used if any nonovarian tissue is present
      - false fruit
    - - refers to fruits containing only ovarian tissue
- - - - indeterminate inflorescence
      - determinate inflorescence
- - - - sepals, petals, and stamen are intermediate
    - - ovary located above sepals, petals, and stamen
    - - ovary located below sepals, petals, stamen
  - - - zygomorphic
        
        bilaterally symmetrical flower
      - actinmorphic
        
        synonym for regular flowers
      - results in highly specific interaction
      - type of evolution in which two species become increasingly adapted to each other
  - - - condition in which a species has two types of sporophyte
    - - condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plants as carpellate flowers
    - - sepals and petals do not produce spores
    - - has both essential organs
    - - flowers that lack either or both essential organs
    - - produce critically important spores
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
  - - - or another flower of a same plant
      - pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower
- - - - entire fruit wall
    - - endocarp
        
        innermost layer
      - mesocarp
        
        middle or flesh
      - exocarp
        
        outer layer, skin or peel
    - - what ovary matures to
  - - - endosperm is sparse or absent at maturity
    - - mature seed in which endosperm is abundant
    - - root/shoot junction
    - - embryonic stem
    - - embryonic root
    - - leaflike structure involved in either nutrient storage
    - - pushes the embryo deep into the endosperm
  - - - nourishes the development of the zygote
    - - sperm fusion with egg nucleus and the other with polar nuclei
    - - fusion of the nuclei
    - - fusion of protoplasts of the gametes
  - - - technical term for multinucleate megagametophyte
    - - pollen grain germinates with tube-like process that carries sperm to egg vicinity
    - - cells that give rise to sperm cells
    - - cells that do not give rise to sperm cells
  - - - have three main parts
        
        ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
        
        style
        
        elevates stigma to useful position
        
        stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
      - constitute the gynoecium
        
        located at the highest level on receptacle
    - - microspores and microgametophytes
    - - two parts
        
        anther
        
        where pollen is produced
        
        filament
        
        its stalk
      - collectively called androecium
      - above petals
    - - sepals and petals
    - - corolla
        
        all petals together
      - above sepals
    - - calyx
        
        all sepals together
      - lowermost and outermost of four floral appendages
    - - lack one of four main types
    - - have all four types
        
        sepals, petals, stamen, and carpels
    - - other flower parts are attached
    - - flower stalk
  - - - sporophyte or gametophyte
      - life cycle of plants
    - - large eggs
        
        do not swim
    - - sperms cells
        
        swim
    - - haploid plant that produces gametes
    - - where meiosis occurs
    - - have organs
      - always diploid
    - - egg
        
        female
      - sperm
        
        male
      - diploid adults have sex organs that produce haploid sex cells
- - - - breaks down glucose
  - - - by acetyl CoA
        
        or enters citric acid cycle
        
        synthesis of carbs
  - - - Benefit
        
        MORE ATP :smiley:
    - - respiration with oxygen
    - - occurs in:
        
        plastids
        
        cytosol
      - produces:
        
        NAD+
        
        NADH
        
        ATP
      - first in anaerobic too :open_mouth:
  - - - cytosol and plastids
  - - - poisons aerobic respiration
    - - NADH converts to heat
      - plants produce better than human
- - - - can be used as a cleaner
      - harms
        
        DUI = 5th greatest cause of death
        
        death
      - benefits
        
        lowers heart disease
    - - is a depressant :frowning_face:
  - - - distilled
        
        doable because different liquids boil at diff temp
        
        alcohol content ^^^
      - solution= toxic to yeast
  - - - continues as long as sugar is present
      - 20-30% weight = sugar
  - - - 68oC-73oC stand for hours
      - moisten grains and germinate
    - - rice
        
        sake= fermentated
      - barely
        
        greatest # of enzymes
        
        = faster than others
        
        MOST COMMON
      - corn
      - wheat
- - - - extra respiration
- - - - seeds with dormant period
        
        no respiration
      - mature fruit
        
        respiration bursts
      - fruit maturation
        
        respiration remains steady
      - mature embryo
        
        respiration decrease
  - - - no oxygen :forbidden:
    - - Lesser amounts of oxygen
    - - 1-2% maintain full respiration
- - - - if moisture content is adequate
  - - - expands until surface encounters a solid barrier
      - sometimes called air bubble
      - space between two portions
    - - hydrogen bonding broken over large region and water column breaks
    - - body water content that changes with habitat moisture
    - - water loss through cuticle
    - - water loss through stomata
    - - molecules cohere sufficiently to withstand tension
      - water is pulled upward by transpiration
      - most widely accepted
  - - - behaves weakly when bound together
      - frozen
        
        molecules become strongly bound together
      - acts on neighboring cells
    - - water molecules interact with many other substances
- - - - growing pollen tubes
      - damaged sieve elements
- - - - sugar is load in or out of phloem
      - passing nutrients to embryos
      - glands that secrete salt
  - - - accumulate or expend K+
  - - - abundant K+
- - - - elevated
      - under pressure
      - heat
  - - - cell constantly losses water
    - - protoplast has lost just enough water to pull away from wall
    - - Plant cell NEVER bursts :red_cross: :forbidden:
      - animal cells explodes in places in pure water
- - - - ACTIVE TRANSPORT
  - - - allow certain substances to pass through
    - - membranes do not allow anything to pass through as occur as isolation barriers
    - - membranes allow all solutes to diffuse through them and have little biological significance
- - - - single, elongated cells with spring shaped-walls
  - - - producing eggs
    - - umbrella shaped outgrowth
    - - not stomatas
    - - a body without roots, stems, and leaves
    - - thallose liverworts
      - leafy liverworts
        
        resembles moss
- - - - layer of cells derived from the neck of the archegonium
    - - one or two sets of teeth like structure around the mouth of sporangium
    - - between foot and sporangium, narrow stalk
    - - lid like top of a sporangium
    - - upper cell grows by cell division and expands into simple apical sporangium
    - - zygote of moss and basal cell
  - - - structure that produces egg
    - - produces sperm cells in ascomycete fungi
    - - grow from spore during germination
    - - resemble sieve cells
    - - innermost cortex
    - - penetrate surface of substrate
    - - form dense mounds
      - tightly appressed
      - grow tightly together
      - leafy stems
    - - grow from apical meristem
      - thrive in many places within cities
      - perennial
- - - - campanulids
      - lamiids
  - - - malvids
      - fabids
  - - - surrounds developing embryo
      - nutritive tissue
    - - water soluble pigments
- - - - clade of angiosperms that contains most species formally known as dicots
    - - informal term for any member of the flowering plant class Liliopsida
- - - - sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
- - - - number of individuals
      - portion size
- - - - populations within individuals patches have a probability of going extinct within that patch
      - empty patches will become colonized by migration from occupied patches
      - some patches are occupied by the species whereas other suitable patches are not
      - a region of the environment is composed of many discrete patches in which the species can live
- - - - first organism facilitates
- - - - any substance or factor that can lead to increased growth rate as its availability is increased and that is consumed by an organism
    - - one organism restricts another organism's access to resources even though the first might not using it.
    - - occurs when organism actually consume a shared resource making it less available for organism
  - - - makes four predictions
    - - examine the interactions between these factors in an attempt to understand why herbivores eat the plants they do while ignoring the others
  - - - limits damage to a species by setting limits on amount that can be harvested
    - - technique that limits damage to a species by automatically decreasing harvests
    - - amount of organisms population that can be harvested without population decreasing
    - - loss of a population from a habitat as a result of that habitat being altered to benefit the population
    - - line indicating population stability
    - - criticized for being to simplistic
      - dP/dt=faNP-qP
        
        rate of change of predator number
      - dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        rate of change with time of prey population
    - - predator's functional response depends on prey density
    - - predator's feeding rate and handling time
- - - - benign environment
        
        higher latitude has more severe conditions
    - - lower diversity than closer to the equator
  - - - plot of the number of species in a region into abundant classes
    - - gamma
        
        number of species within a region
      - beta
        
        compares differences between smaller sites in large region
      - alpha
        
        number of species or growth forms that occur at local site
    - - Biogeographical region
      - Biome
      - Region
      - Local
    - - S=cA^z
      - relationship between area and species richness
- - - - xylem and phloem strands running parallel
    - - region of parenchyma similar to cortex
    - - primary plant body
  - - - "sieve element"
        
        must be alive to conduct
        
        parenchyma cells
        
        sieve tubes members
        
        companion cells
        
        sieve cells
        
        albuminous cells
  - - - provides more strength
    - - secondary wall organized as rings
    - - vessel elements
      - tracheids
        
        tracheary elements
  - - - distribute sugars and minerals
    - - conduct water and minerals
  - - - hairs
    - - can inhibit CO2 from entering
        
        Stroma fixes this
      - fatty substance that makes cell impermeable to water
    - - other leaves or stems
      - dust
      - animals
- - - - storing nutrients
        
        potatoes
      - grow only short period
    - - allow plant to spread underground
  - - - young leaves
      - atypical meristem
      - miniature shoot
  - - - regions between nodes
- - - - Conducting
        
        vascular cell
        
        transports water
      - Mechanical
        
        sclereids
        
        cuboidal
        
        fibers
        
        strong
    - - does not droop
    - - snow
      - animals
      - wind
    - - goes back to original shape
    - - thick secondary cell wall
      - primary cell wall
  - - - grape stems :grapes:
    - - can be deformed by pressure & retains new shape :open_mouth:
      - plasticity
    - - except in corners
  - - - involves little glucose
    - - Transfer
        
        increase surface area through extensive knobs
        
        short distance transport
      - Chlorenchyma
        
        numerous chloroplasts
        
        thin walls
        
        involved in photosynthesis
      - Grandular
        
        transports:
        
        minerals
        
        sugar
        
        few chloroplasts
        
        secret:
        
        oils
        
        resins
        
        mucilage :question:
        
        fragrances
        
        nectar
    - - seeds
      - fruits
      - petals
      - soft leaves
- - - - holds blade into light
  - - - smooth
      - adaxial side
    - - abaxial side
        
        large veins protrude like back bones
      - blade's lower side
- - - - incapable of movement
    - - move during capture
  - - - most common modifications
  - - - THICK
        
        hypodermis
        
        epidermis
        
        cuticle
  - - - leaves could live for two years
    - - could lose energy every time it made a leaf
  - - - mesophyll transparent
      - water loss through stomata
    - - reduced CO2 intake
      - optimal surface to volume shape
- - - - small and die early
      - contribute to photosynthesis
      - protect shoot apical meristem
      - two small flaps
    - - one, three, five or more vascular bundles
  - - - many fibers become arranged
    - - midrib= midvein
  - - - lower portion of leaf
    - - main photosynthetic tissue of most plants
      - upper surface of most leaves
  - - - hairy
    - - water loss through epidermis
- - - - can be linear and strapped
    - - adjacent to primordium
  - - - extends upward, narrow cone
        
        bulk of mid rib
        
        increases in thickness
      - cells just interior to protoderm growing outward
- - - - grow various angles
    - - nutrients from rainwater
  - - - grows around small branch
      - not all related
      - roots of parasitic plants
  - - - penetrates one cell after another to the root cortex
    - - chemical conversion of nitrogen into usable compounds
  - - - cannot pass casparian strip
      - penetrate root cortex
      - herbaceous
    - - fungi penetrate outermost cortex but do not invade cell themselves
      - woody forest plants
  - - - water proof barrier
      - several layers of large dead cells
        
        white
    - - living attached to the branches of trees
  - - - brace trunk against the wind
      - upper side grows more rapidly
  - - - used to produce new shoot
- - - - powerful water absorption and water pressure
    - - once thought to be passageways for mineral absorption
  - - - lateral roots
      - vascular tissue and parenchyma cells form irregular region
    - - control types of minerals that enter xylem water stream
      - bands of altered walls
    - - cylinder cells
  - - - becomes active is meristem is damaged
        
        form new apical meristem
      - mitotically inactive central region
- - - - increase root's surface area
      - form only on part of root that is not elongating
    - - lateral roots emerge
      - epidermal cells extend out as trichomes
    - - cells undergo division and expansion
    - - lubricates passage of root through soil
      - complex polysaccharide
      - secreted by root cap cells
    - - constantly worn away
      - protects root apical meristem
  - - - increase absorptive and transport capacities
    - - similar sized roots
    - - usually becomes largest root
      - embryonic root that develops from taproot
    - - small
- - - - reducing atmosphere
      - produced by release of gases from the rock matrix composing Earth
- - - - evolution of two phenotypically distinct species, organs, that they strongly resemble each other
  - - - in a small gene pool, the alteration in allele frequencies mostly by accidents rather than natural selection
    - - species rapidly diverges into many new species over a short time
    - - two populations occasionally interbreed or are artificially cross-pollinated and produce viable seed
    - - same as prezygotic but occurs AFTER
    - - phenomena that prevent successful interbreeding of two populations but act so early that fertilization is not possible
    - - when two groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together
    - - any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
    - - if speciation occurs
    - - any physical, nonliving feature that prevents two population from exchanging genes
  - - - vegetative propagation
      - seed dispersal
      - pollen transfer
      - the movement of alleles physically through a space
- - - - 2 ways for it to occur
        
        progeny must differ from each other in their types of alleles
        
        population must produce more offspring that can possibly grow and survive to maturity in that habitat
      - the most significant factor causing the gene pool changes is usually described as survival of the fittest
    - - artificial mutation
      - crop plants and domestic animals
      - process in which humans purposefully change the allele frequency of a gene pool
    - - ex. large meteorite hits earth
      - an organism cannot adapt
    - - existing decrease while new increase
      - occurs constantly
- - - - forms a small outward protrusion
      - initiated when a single surface cell divides periclinally
    - - initiated when surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
    - - clusters of sporangia where meiosis occurs
    - - vascular bundle that extends from the stem vascular bundles through the cortex and enters a leaf
    - - more than 12,000 species
      - familiar to us
    - - area above leaf trace where there is no conducting tissue
  - - - main trunk, lateral branches, true leaves, true roots
    - - umbrella shape
  - - - woody plants
  - - - megaphyllous plants form a monophyletic clade
    - - sporangium-bearing, leaf-like structure
    - - concept that lamina originated by the production of parenchyma cells between the telomes
    - - occurs in one plane, resulting in flat system
    - - twigs, last of dichotomy
    - - theory that leaves evolved from branching systems by overtopping, planation, and webbing
    - - megaphylls
        
        leaves that evolved from branch systems
      - enations of zosterophyllsophytes
      - leaves on gametophytes
  - - - single main trunk rather than a series of dichotomies
    - - trimerophytes had unequal branching and one stem was more vigorous
- - - - small flaps of tissue
  - - - sporangia clustered together in compact groups
  - - - present in lycophytes
      - type of leaf that evolved from an enation
- - - - thought to have been the ancestor of leaves in lycophytes
      - small projecting flap of tissue
  - - - later evolved, pith in center
    - - protoxylem on edges of several groups next to phloem
      - metaxylem located in center of xylem
    - - metaxylem differentiates on outer edge of xylem mass
      - protoxylem is located in center
    - - solid mass of xylem and no pith
    - - earliest vascular plants
    - - both branches of equal size and vigor
    - - earliest fossils that were vascular plants
- - - - euphorbias
      - lilies
      - bromeliads
      - orchids
      - cactus family
    - - hot dry climate
  - - - 25oC-30oC
    - - monocots in hot climates
    - - energy wasting process
  - - - especially at night
        
        stomata close
  - - - less stomata
        
        also lengthen photosynthesis
      - some have water loss reductions
        
        can lengthen photosythesis
  - - - summer=better :sunflower:
      - Number of hours a day sunlight is available
    - - also consider shape and size of plant
      - intensity or brightness
        
        greatest at noon
    - - colors or wavelength
- - - - anabolic synthesis of glucose
    - - store starch=
        
        chloroplasts and amyloplasts
      - long term storage
        
        starches
        
        most important
      - intermediate term storage
        
        sugars
      - short term storage
        
        ATP NADPH
  - - - builds anything the plant needs
        
        nucleic acids
        
        amino acids
        
        fats
        
        sugars
  - - - P680
    - - P700
        
        absorb red light
    - - accessory pigments
        
        most common
        
        carotenoids
        
        chlorophyll b
        
        molecules that strongly absorbs wavelength not absorbed by chlorophyll a
      - VISIBLE LIGHT
        
        pigment
        
        CRITICAL
        
        chlorophyll a
        
        absorbs quanta
        
        absorbs certain wavelength and has specific color
        
        400-750 nm
      - radiowaves
      - microwaves
      - infrared lights
      - uv light
      - x-rays
      - gamma rays
- - - - chloroplast membrane
      - holds copper
      - small protein
    - - dissolve into chloroplasts membrane
      - hydrophobic
      - pick up 2 e, bind 2 p
    - - carries electrons short distance
      - in chloroplasts thylakoid
      - holds iron "heme"
      - small proteins
  - - - electron lost=oxidized
        
        oxidizing agents= take electrons away
        
        oxygen
        
        increases positive charger
      - electrons added=reduced
        
        reducing agents=give electrons away
        
        hydrogen
        
        reduces positive charger
      - oxidative state=number of e- during redox reactions
        
        covalent bonds
      - oxidized=atoms do not carry as many electrons as it could.
  - - - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        occurs in all of plant
        
        ADP phosphorylated to ATP
      - substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        high energy phosphate groups
      - photophosphorylation
        
        occurs only in chloroplasts
        
        light energy in photosynthesis
- - - - break down remains of other organisms
      - fungi and bacteria
    - - carnivores
    - - herbivores
    - - autotrophs
- - - - douglas firs, bristle cones
    - - annuals or small shrubby
  - - - number of individuals in each population that can live in a particular ecosystem is limited
      - symbolized by K
    - - number of offspring produced by an individual that live long enough to reproduce under ideal conditions
    - - affect population growth
      - length of time from the birth of one individual until the birth of its first offspring
    - - =demography
        
        relative young portions, middle aged, and old individuals
  - - - uniform distributions
        
        all individuals are evenly spaced
        
        occur in orchards and tree plantations
      - clumped distributions
        
        spacing between plants is either large or small but rarely average
      - random distribution
        
        no obvious identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
    - - Limiting factor
        
        various nutrients
        
        light
        
        water
- - - - grazing
        
        eats herbs
      - browsing
        
        eating twigs and plants
      - predation
        
        relationship in which one species benefits and the other is harmed
      - commensal relationships
        
        one species benefits and the other is unaffected are also common between plants and animals
    - - transplant experiment
        
        plants are transplanted to another spot to live in common ground with another plant
      - ecotypes
        
        race of a species that are adapted to a particular environmental factors in certain parts of the species range
      - niche
        
        the set of conditions exploited best by one species
      - competitive exclusion
        
        species that is less adapted is excluded from the ecosystem by superior competitors
      - competition
        
        disadvantageous for both organisms
      - mutualism
        
        interaction is beneficial for both organisms
  - - - C horizon
        
        parent rock and rock fragment
      - B horizon
        
        zone of deposition
      - A horizon
        
        zone of leaching
        
        uppermost
      - pioneers
        
        must tolerate several conditions
        
        first plant that invade a new soil
    - - tolerance range
        
        between the low and high extremes