Ecology & Animal Behavior
Animal Behavior
Fundamentals of Ecology
Population Ecology
Behavior: Actions carried out by muscles under the influence of the nervous system in response to a stimulus
Behavior Ecology: the study of the ecological and evolutionary factors that influence animal behavior.
Behavioral Rhythms: Patterns of behavior that follow a (roughly) regular cycle of timing or response
Innate Behavior: Developmentally fixed behavior that is persistent throughout a population
Fixed Action Pattern: A sequence of unlearned actions that are directly linked to a simple stimulus.
Sign Stimulus: An external cue that triggers a fixed action response in an organism
Circadian Clock: An internal mechanism that maintains a 24-hour rhythm cycle. Used to regulate sleep, migration, and other behaviors
Circannual Rhythm: Behavioral patterns that follow a yearly cycle of seasons
Migration: The regular, long-distance change in location observed in many birds, fish, and other animals
Signal: A stimulus transmitted from one organism to another
Communication: Transmission and reception of signals between organisms. An essential element of interaction between individuals
Visual Communication: Sending and receiving signals based on sight. (ex. peacocks using their bright feathers to attract a mate)
Chemical Communication: Emission of certain molecules to trigger a response based on smell (ex. Female fruit flies secrete a chemical to attract nearby males)
Tactile Communication: Communicating using touch and texture (ex. Elephants rubbing trunks as a way of sending signals to their offspring/mates)
Auditory Communication: Using sound to alert others to an individuals presence or elicit other responses (ex. One dog begins barking and shortly after any within earshot begin barking as well)
Pheromones: Chemicals used to send olfactory or taste signals to other organisms
Fixed action patterns are generally carried to completion once initiated and are essentially unchangeable
Cross-fostering Study: Young of one species are raised by parents of another species in order to assess behavioral changes throughout development
Twin Study: Study comparing the behaviors of identical twins raised apart to that of twins raised together
Learned Behavior: Behavior that is influenced and instilled by experience or observation
Learning: The modification of behavior through specific experiences
Imprinting: Forming a strong, long-lasting behavioral response to an individual or object at a specific developmental stage
Sensitive Period: Limited developmental phase in which imprinting can occur
Cognitive Map: A representation in the nervous system of the spatial relationship between objects in an animal's surroundings
Spatial Learning: The establishment of a memory that reflects the spatial structure of the environment
Associative Learning: The ability to associate one environmental feature with another
Cognition: Process of comprehension using awareness, judgement, reasoning, and recollection
Problem Solving: Using cognition to devise a method of overcoming real or perceived obstacles
Social Learning: Learning through observation of more experienced animals, often in groups
Foraging: The process of gathering, collecting, or locating food
Optimal Foraging Model: Natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that maximizes benefits and minimizes costs of foraging
Mating Behavior: The patterns of behavior that lead an animal to mate and reproduce
Promiscuity: No strong pair-bonds are formed, with individuals reproducing and moving on to another mate at a later time
Polygamous: An individual of one sex mating with several of the other
Polygyny: A single male mating with multiple females
Polyandry: A single female mating with multiple males
Sexual Dimorphism: The degree to which males and females of a species differ in appearance
Intersexual Selection: Members of one sex choose mates based on characteristics of the opposite sex (ex: a canary's courtship song)
Intrasexual Selection: Members of one sex compete to select mates of the opposite sex (ex: ram's fighting for dominance over a female or group of females)
Certainty of Paternity: All young carry their mothers genes, but may not carry the genes of the females usual mate
Game Theory: Evaluates alternative strategies in situations whose outcomes depends on the strategies of all involved
The Side-Blotched Lizard displays polymorphism in males. Each of three different throat colors corresponds to a certain pattern of behavior
Blue-throats are also territorial but will be run off by orange-throats. Watches a smaller territory with fewer females, making it easier to defend against yellow-throats
Yellow-throats exhibit "sneaky" behavior, invading the territories of other males and mating with their females. Can easily enter orange-throat territory, butis often spotted by
Orange-throats are the most aggressive, defending large areas to protect females. Large territory and many females makes them susceptible to "sneaky" yellow-throats
Ecology: The study of the relationship between organisms and their environment
Climate: The long term, prevailing weather conditions in a given geographical area
Ecosystem Ecology: Observes energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and the environment
Community Ecology: Examines how interactions between species affect community structure and organization (ex. which species are the predators and which are prey)
Landscape Ecology: Observes factors that affect materials and organisms across multiple ecosystems
Population Ecology: Analyzes factors that affect population change over time
Global Ecology: Examines how regional changes in energy and materials influence the biosphere, the sum total of all environments and ecosystems on the Earth
Organismal Ecology: Examines how an organisms physiology, structure, and behavior affect the environment around it
Landscape: A mosaic of connected ecosystems. Called a seascape when referring to the ocean
Ecosystem: The community of organisms in an area and the environmental factors with which they interact
Community: A group of populations of different species that share a geographical area
Population: A group of a single species within a geographical area
Macroclimate: Prevailing patterns of weather on the global, regional, and landscape levels
Microclimate: Patterns observable at very fine, localized areas (ex. the climate of the human gut experienced by internal bacteria)
Tropics: Regions that lie between 23.5 degrees north latitude and 23.5 degrees south latitude. These regions receive the most direct sunlight of any area on Earth
Temperate Zones: Areas between roughly 30 degrees and 60 degrees latitude on both the northern and southern hemispheres. Has a more variable climate than the tropics
Seaonality: Cycles of changing weather patterns associated with the changing angle of inbound sunlight as a result of Earth's tilt on it's axis
Equinox: Period where the equator faces the sun directly and neither pole tilts toward the sun, causing all regions on Earth experience 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night. Occurs in March (Vernal) and September (Autumnal)
Solstice: Period where one pole faces the sun, lengthening the days in one hemisphere, while the other pole faces away from the sun and experiences shorter days. The Northern hemisphere faces the sun during the June (Summer) Solstice, while the Southern hemisphere faces the sun during the December (Winter) Solstice
Biotic Factors: Living factors; other organisms that interact with an individual in its environment
Abiotic Factors: Nonliving factors; chemical and physical attributes of the surrounding environment that an individual interacts with
Global Climate Change: The alterations to the global climate caused by the burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution. Has caused temperatures to rise by an average of 0.8 degrees Celsius (1.4 degrees Fahrenheit) since 1900
As a result of this, many species will have to shift their ranges to different areas in order to compensate for the changing climate in their current habitat (ex. the American Beech tree will have to shift its southernmost range by over 1000 Km if the average global temperature increases by 4.5 degrees Celsius over the next century)
Biome: Major life-supporting zones that have characteristic vegetation types (terrestrial) or physical attributes (aquatic)
Population: A group of individuals of a single species occupying the same geographical area
Density: Number of individuals within a defined area (x/km)
Dispersion: Pattern of spacing among individuals
Mark-recapture Method: Using markers to identify previously encountered wildlife. Using the number of tagged animals encountered on repeated visits provides an estimate of total population
Emigration: Moving into the existing population
Immigration: Moving into a new population
Territoriality: An individual antagonistically defending its perceived property or territory
Uniform Dispersion: Even spacing of individuals as a result of interaction between them
Random Dispersion: Dispersion is totally independent of interactions with others
Clumped Dispersion: Forming groups with others for protection, mating, or other benefits
Demography: Study of how population statistics change over time
Life Table: Age-specific summaries of the survival patterns within a population. Can indicate growth, consistency, or decline
Cohort: A group of individuals of the same age group within a population. All of the members are observed from birth to death in order to observe population trends
Survivorship Curve: Plot of the proportion of individuals within the cohort still alive at each age
Reproductive Table: Numerical indication of the rates of population change by age
Stable Growth: Consistent, low to moderate birth rate that is self regulating
Exponential Growth: Population increases as increasing birth rate produces more breeding pairs
No Growth: No net increase in population size
Carrying Capacity: The maximum sustainable population with the given resources
Logistical Growth Model: Net increase in population approaches zero as carrying capacity becomes closer