Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Causes of WWI (Long Term (Unification of Germany (unification transformed…

- - - - at a time when the power of the Kaiser and the German elites was being challenged by the growing strength of Socialists who, by 1912, were the larger party in the Reichstag
    - - replacing view since 1930s that no one country was responsible for the First World War - according to British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, no country wanted war in 1914
    - - Geiss
        
        sees Germany was the aggressor in the July Crisis - put pressure on Austria-Hungary to resolve by military action the threat posed by Serbia
        
        Bethmann-Hollweg's gouvernement was prepared to provoke a general Europe war in order to fulfil the aims of Weltpolitik
    - - Gerhard Ritter:
        
        argues Germany acted defensively in July 1914
        
        Germany was seeking a diplomatic victory over the Triple Entente, rather than a military one
      - Egmont Zechlin
        
        Germany in 1914 was seeking a preventative war, with no plans for acquiring land from its neighbours
        
        challenged Fischer's claim that Bethmann-Hollweg's September Programme (1914), in which the German Government outlined possible war aims in terms of acquiring terrortiy in central in Europe, reflected the German government's movies in going to war in 1914
  - - - which arguable made the prospect of a short, victorious war more attractive to the Kaiser and his advisors in 1914
  - - - the Triple Entente of France, Russia and Britain
      - and therefore, went to war in desperation in 1914 as an attempt to break out of its encirclement by the Triple Entente as the balance of power tipped increasingly in the favour of Germany's enemies
      - no doubt that the German government was more and more worried about the fragility of its chief ally, Austria-Hungary, which appeared menaced by the restless nationalism of its Slav subjects
  - - - the rival government, believing that any war that broke out would be a short one
      - believed that mobilisation speed would prove decisive so rushed to mobilise first
    - - within a few days, all of the great powers had begun mobilisation
  - - - Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism' (1916)
      - the origins of the war lay about tall else in the European great powers' race to expand their overseas empires in Africa and Asia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
        
        Lenin saw these imperial rivalries as the result of capitalist competition for markets and resources
    - - fails to take into account the fact that imperialism seems to have been driven much more by the search for prestige rather than profits
      - unable to provide evidence to supper their assertion that capitalist interests put pressure on European governments to go to war in 1914
- - - - German Empire now the most powerful industrial and military state on the continent
        
        why France and Britain signed a military alliance in 1894 - both neighbours of Germany, and worried about Germany's strength (despite being Great Powers themselves)
    - - because German states had defeated France in 1871 and Germany had taken Alsace-Lorraine from France (wanted it back)
  - - - Bismarck wanted to ensure that Germany would be a trois in a Europe of five powers
      - After 1871, his greatest concern was keeping France isolated - so it could not seek revenge for its defeat and loss Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871
        
        assumed that France would not attack Germany on its own
        
        to do so, Bismarck singed a series of defensive military alliances
        
        the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary (1879)
        
        Three Emperors' Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Russia (1881)
        
        the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary (1882)
      - increasingly difficult to keep Russia and Austria-Hungary together as rivalry in Balkans deepened
        
        e.g. the crisis over Bulgaria in 1885-86 brought relations to a breaking point
        
        therefore, there was no renewal of the Three Emperors Alliance when it expired in 1887
        
        Bismarck kept on good terms with both countries through separate treaties
        
        Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary - renewed every 5 years
        
        The Reinsurance Treaty (1887) with Russia
      - difficult for Bismarck to juggle all treaties
        
        clear signs of strain in Russo-German relations well before Kaiser Wilhelm II's ascension to the throne (1888)
      - Wilhelm II wanted to follow different policies to Bismarck
        
        1890 Bismarck resigned
        
        Wilhelm II did not renew the insurance treaty with Russia
        
        as a result, France and Russia drifted together and formed the alliance of 1894
        
        what Bismarck had feared was occurring - France had a powerful enemy and Germany faced the potential threat of a simultaneous attack from both East and West
    - - development of this provided the mechanism by which a local conflict in the Balkans escalated into a general European war
        
        does not mean alliance system caused war
    - - alliances were fragile - not regarded as a major cause of the First World War
      - 'Yet it would be wrong to exaggerate the rigidity of the system of alliance or to regard the European war as inevitable. No war is inevitable until it breaks out.'
      - 'In France, the Russian alliance was increasingly unpopular... in June 1914, the British Government at least reached agreement with Germany over the baghdad railway; and the French had already done so in February. Both seemed to be taking sides with Germany against Russia in the great question of Turkey-in-Asia'
      - 'The existing alliances were all precarious. Italy was the only extreme example - reviewing the Triple Alliance and making exaggerated promised of military support to Germany on the one side; seeking to negotiate a Mediterranean agreement with France and Britain on the other.'
    - - these war plans played a key role in the decisions made during the July Crisis in 1914
    - - by 1914 the German government was so alarmed that the balance power was tipping decisively in favour of the Triple Entente,
        
        it was looking to achieve a diplomatic victory by humiliating the Triple Entente following Franz Ferdinand's assassination,
        
        or it would fight a general European war whilst it was still strong enough to win
  - - - Britain believes it was best served by remaining in splendid isolation - free to concentrated on its vast overseas empire and commercial interests
    - - originally intended to reduce tensions created by imperial rivalries between the signatories
        
        between France and Britain - principally in North Africa
        
        Russia and Britain - influence in Afghanistan and Central Asia
      - took on an increasingly anti-German nature
        
        by 1914, Britain felt it could not stand by and see Germany defeat France
    - - alarm at the aggressive imperialism and naval expansion pursue by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany after 1897 under the policy of Weltpolitik
  - - - all were searching for influence and territory in the Far East - at the expense of China
    - - 1900: increased to 90%
    - - after Opium Wars of 1840s: GB given Hong Kong
      - 1895: Japan defeated China
      - Russia forced China to grant it a 25 year lease on the Liaotung Peninsula
      - Germany occupied Kiaochow
  - - - economic
        
        Lenin argued imperialism was driven by the interests of capitalism - seeking new markets
        
        European powers gained little in raw material from their colonies and colonial trade constituted only a small percentage of their overall trade
      - nationalism
        
        colonies were seen as giving states presidege - imperialism was popular
        
        there was widespread belief in Social Darwinism - the strongest states would expand at the expense of the weaker
      - religious
        
        many Europeans saw it as their duty to bring civilisation and Christianity to the 'backward' peoples of Africa
    - - led to growing tensions between Britain and France in late 18th century
        
        the Fashoda Incident of 1898 - French and British troops confronted each other in the Sudan
      - Growing tensions between Britain and Russia over Far East and Central Asia
      - led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
        
        Russia's defeat led it to turn its attention back to the Balkans
        
        contributed to increasing international tensions in the decade before 1914
        
        directly led to the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France in 1904
        
        France ally of Russia since 1894, Britain ally to Japan since 1902
        
        both countries worried they would be dragged into this war
        
        signing this agreement minimised the risk of this and resolved long standing colonial disagreements (Morocco and Egypt)
        
        not an alliance (an agreement) and not directly aimed at Germany but it worried Germany and contributed to its fear of encirclement
      - arguable, colonialism provided a safety valve for the European states where their rivalry might cause tension but never reach the point where a war was likely
        
        in reality, colonialism encouraged the development of Weltpolitik by Germany
        
        Weltpolitik did contribute to heightened international tension (particularly after 1905)
  - - - but did indulge Germans by seizing territories in south-west and east Africa (mid 1880s)
      - Kaiser Wilhelm II keen to make Germany into a world power
        
        jealous of Britain
        
        felt that Germany needed a large colonial empire in order to be regarded as a great power
    - - committing Germany to the acquisition of more colonies and the building of a powerful navy
    - - Klaus von Bulow
        
        Foreign Minister (1897)
        
        'we don't want to put anyone else in the shade, but we too demand a place in the sun'
      - Alfred von Tirpitz
        
        Naval Minister (1897)
      - both saw Weltpolitik as an important instrument for
        
        rallying support for Imperial government
        
        promoting patiortism
        
        weakening the Socialists who were critical of imperialism and increased spending on armaments
    - - very little was acquired in terms of further colonies (Wilhelm disappointed)
      - his attempts to promote Germany's influence overseas created considerable friction with leading colonial power (GB and France)
      - helped bring Britain out of its splendid isolation in search for closer links with France and Russia
      - Germany increasingly saw itself as encircled by the Triple Entente of GB, France and Russia
  - - - German government sent Kaiser to Tangier to announce Germany's commitment to continuing independence of Morocco
        
        meant to signal to France that could not increase in Morocco without prior consultation with Germany
      - German government expected Britain to not support France
        
        hoped the Entente Cordiale (1904) would collapse
        
        did the opposite - Britain and France stood together at the Algeciras Conference (1906) which was called to resolve the dispute
    - - German government sent the gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir in protest at France's decision to send more troops to Morocco
        
        Britain reacted strongly - feared Germany was seeking to acquire a naval base in the Mediterranean
        
        suspicions about Germany's intentions strengthened - 1912 France and Britain signed a naval agreement - cooperation of their naval deployments
      - Lloyd George (Chancellor of Exchequer) made a thinly veiled threat of war in his Mansion House Speech
      - crisis ended with France and Germany agreeing to influence French influence in Morocco in return for France giving Germany the territory of Congo
        
        damaged international relations
    - - doing so pushed France and Britain closer
        
        increasing Germany's fear of encirclement
  - - - German government supported this patriotism
      - Wilhelm II also wanted a powerful navy - so Germany could become a great colonial power
    - - drawn up by Tirpitz - strengthened German Navy
      - under 1900 law, 3 battleships built every year for next 20 years
    - - initially not concerned - they had a huge lead
        
        1898: Britain had 38 class 1 battleships; Germany had 7
      - from 1906: became an Anglo-German Naval arms race
        
        resulted in the construction of a revolutionary dreadnought battleship
        
        Germans copied with the Nassau class
        
        dreadnought made other battleships obsolete
        
        1912: Germany and Britain neck and neck
        
        Britain about to outstrip Germany in the construction of Dreadnoughts
        
        Germany reduced its naval spending in order to increase spending on its army
        
        1906: Germany announced plans to widen the Kiel Canal to allow dreadnought ships access to the Baltic sea
        
        arms race cemented the Triple Entente
    - - 'if there is a war between France and Germany, it will be very difficult for us to keep out of it. The Entente and still the more the constant and emphatic demonstrations of affection...have created in France a belief that we shall support them in war. If this expectation is disappointed, the French will never forgive us. There would also I think be a general feeling that we have behaved badly and left France in the lurch'
  - - - the Entente Cordiale (1904) with France
      - Entente (1907) with Russia
        
        to reach an agreement over disputes concerning Afghanistan and the New East
        
        not a military alliance
        
        Germany's aggressive behaviour strengthened relations between Russia and Britain
      - these (strengthening) relations increased German fears of encirclement
    - - by 1914:
        
        German government was frightened that Austria-Hungary might break up - leaving Germany alone
        
        felt Germany's other ally, Italy, was too unreliable and weak to stand up to the Triple Entente
        
        German government believed a European war would break out at some point
        
        in July 1914, they calculated that it would be better to go to war rather than wait until Austria-Hungary was weaker and the Triple Entente was stronger
  - - - Michael Howard
        
        the arms race, which reflected the rival alliances, generate huge tensions and mutual suspicions that led to deteriorating international relations and explain the great powers' resort to war in the July Crisis in 1914
        
        points out in Studies in War and Peace (1970) - war plans drawn up by the Great Powers assumed that mobilisation speed would be decisive
        
        millions of men had to be recalled to the colours, organised into fighting units, equipped with a vast apparatus of arms and service and sent by railways to their points of concentration, all within a few days
        
        the lesson of Prussia's swift victory over France in 1870 was burnt into the mind of every staff officer in Europe: the nation which loses the mobilisation race is likely to lose the war
      - Niall Ferguson
        
        questioned whether increased military spending made the great powers more inclined to go to war
        
        in the period immediately before the First World War, it was Britain who increased its expenditure most and it was definitely not seeking war in 1914
    - - France by 68% to 910,000
      - Russia by 100% to 1,352,00
      - Germany by 77% to 891,000
      - any increase by the French or Russians triggered similar expansion by the Germans (and vice versa)
    - - from 1908, Russia modernised and expanded her army
        
        by 1914 her regulars and reservists combined numbered 6 million
        
        Germany's totalled 4.5 million
        
        one explanation for why Germany was ready to risk a general European war in 1914 is the alarming growing might of the Russian army
        
        German government viewed a possible European war as a way of break in gout of their encirclement by the Triple Entente
        
        wanted to fight Russia before her military reforms were completed (scheduled for 1917)
  - - - he saw a simultaneous French-Russian as the main threat to Germany's security
        
        devised a plan to counter this danger
    - - therefore, Germany would not face a major Russian attack while 85% of their troops were attacking France
    - - to avoid the strong French fortresses on the Franco-German border between Belgium and Switzerland
    - - Count von Moltke became Chief of the German General Staff
        
        he altered the Schlieffen plan slightly
        
        most important change - German army would not advance through Holland (only through Belgium)
        
        Belgium was a neutral country, whose independence had been guaranteed by the Great Powers of Europe in a treaty in 1839
  - - - key long-term cause
        
        because a power vacuum had developed in South-Eastern Europe when the Ottoman Empire declined
        
        this gave rise to Great Power competition to fill it
        
        combined with growing Balkan nationalism, tensions rose and appeared to threaten the survival of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
    - - Bosnia had once been part of the Ottoman Empire
        
        where Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 1914
      - from the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had controlled virtually the whole of Southern-Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and much of North Africa
      - from the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline
        
        a number of subject peoples (mainly Christian) broke away and became independent
        
        Greeks first to break away
        
        an independent Greece was set up in 1830
        
        in 1856, following the Crimean War, Romania, Serbia and Bulgaria gained self-government within the empire
        
        all 3 gained independence, following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, and the Congress of Berlin
    - - like vultures circling the sick man of Europe [Turkish Empire]
      - the 2 with the greatest interest were Austria-Hungary and Russia
        
        both bordered the Turkish Empire
        
        Russia saw itself as the protectors of the Slavs, the Pan-Slav movement was influential in Russia (especially int he 1870s/1880s)
        
        Russia wanted to acquire a warm-water port, control the Dardanelles, the Straits that connected the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea
        
        Austria-Hungary suspicious of Russia's ambitions - sought to extend its own empire into Bosnia-Herzegovina
        
        Congress of Berlin (1878) gave Austria-Hungary the right to administer Bosnia-Hungary
        
        but the provinces remained officially part of the Turkish Empire
    - - he believed that no German interests were at stake in the Balkans
      - worried about the impact of the Balkans on Austria-Hungary's relations with Russia
        
        concerned that Balkan tensions would prevent him from keeping both as allies
        
        might lead to France gaining an ally
        
        he would not unconditionally support Austria-Hungary's interest in the Balkans
        
        'the whole of the Balkans was not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian musketeer'
      - used diplomatic means to try and contain Balkan tensions
        
        e.g. his role as 'honest broker' at the Congress of Berlin (1878) and the signing of the Three Emperors League (1881)
    - - 1897-1905: Russian-Austrian rivalry over the Balkans was less fierce
        
        partly because Russia was more interested in expanding its empire into the Far East
      - after 1905:
        
        Russia turned its attention back to the Balkans
        
        after Russia was humiliated in its defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
      - 1903: a change in the ruling dynasty in Serbia
        
        before 1903, Serbia's ruling family (the Obrenovish dynasty) had been friendly towards Austria-Hungary
        
        the assassination of King Alexander took the Karageorgevich family to the throne
        
        much more pro-Russian, anti-Austrian
      - 1908: a servious civil crisis broke out
        
        Austria-Hungary had occupied the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1878 - but they had technically remained part of the Ottoman Empire
        
        in 1908, they announced that they were formally taking them over, incorporating them into their Empire
        
        led to a major row with Serbia (an independent Balkan country)
        
        they had had their eye on Bosnia (many Serbs living there)
        
        possession of Bosnia-Herzegovnia would give Serbia access to the sea
        
        Russia protested at these actions
        
        did not want to see Austrian influence increase
        
        Russia had a close relationship with Serbia
        
        Serbs and Russians were both Orthodox Christian Slavic people
      - ended when:
        
        Germany (Austria-Hungary's ally) forced Russia to back down by threatening war
        
        Russia would not consider war in 1908 - still recovering from a revolution and defeat by Japan in 1905
        
        as a consequence, Austria-Hungary kept Bosnia and relations between her and Serbia and Russia deteriorated
      - Bosnian Crisis revealed a major change in German policy
        
        Germany became increasingly interested in expanding its influence in the Balkans
- - - - Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
      - in Sarajevo, Bosnia
      - on June 24th 1914
      - Archduke was heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire - one of the greatest powers of Europe
      - he and his wife were shot by a Serbian terrorist, Gavrilo Princip
        
        while they were on a state visit to Bosnia - which had officially joined the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1908
        
        Princip was protesting at the occupation of Bosnia by Austria-Hungary, on the grounds that it contained many Serbs
      - there were 2 main reasons why this sparked off a major war between European great powers:
        
        Austro-Hungary decided to use the assassination attempt as an excuse to go to war with Serbia
        
        relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary had become increasingly strained since the beginning of the 20th century
        
        both Serbia and Austria-Hungary had military allies who were drawn into the conflict
        
        Serbia had an alliance with Russia (who had signed alliances/agreements with France and Britain - Triple Entente)
        
        Austria-Hungary had the Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy
        
        July-August 1914, the members of the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance were, one by one, drawn into the escalating conflict which had begun in the Balkans
      - a catalyst
  - - - all great powers expected the war to be over quickly - therefore, all under great pressure from their generals to mobilise as quickly as possible
        
        made a diplomatic solution unlikely
      - this declaration of war put Russia in a difficult position
        
        Russian government could not stand by and see Serbia crushed - would undermine Russia's prestige and boost Austrian influence in the Balkans
        
        if Russia ordered a general mobilisation of its armed forces it would prompt Germany to mobilise against Russia
        
        Tsar Nicholas II hoped he could just order partial mobilisation against Austria-Hungary
        
        his general informed him this was not possible
        
        mobilise in preparation for war with Germany and Austria-Hungary or not at all
        
        ordered general mobilisation on 29th July
        
        30th July: Austria-Hungary ordered general mobilisation
        
        31st July: Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia demanding that she stop mobilisation
        
        2 more items...
    - - 25 July
        
        26 July
        
        27 July
        
        28 July
        
        29 July
        
        31 July
        
        2 more items...
        
        29th July
        
        1 more item...
        
        28 July
        
        Austria-Hungary declare was on Serbia and start to bombard Belgrade
        
        Kaiser Wilhelm II - anxious about imminence of war with Russia
        
        1 more item...
        
        27 July
        
        France accepted Grey's proposal
        
        Austria-Hungary decide to declare war on Serbia
        
        Bethmann-Hollweg (German Chancellor) rejected Grey's proposal
        
        26 July
        
        Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary, proposed international conference of ambassador to discuss crisis (held in London
        
        Austria-Hungary began to mobilise forces on Russia's border
        
        25 July
        
        Serbia reply to ultimatum - conciliatory but rejected proposition of Austria sending police into Serbia
        
        Austria-Hungary broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia
        
        Tsar Nicholas II ordered preparations for mobilisation
      - 23 July
        
        Austrian ultimatum sent to Serbia