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Ch's 51-53 (Intro to Ecology and the Biosphere (Types of Ecology…

- - - - 4 factors
        
        temperature
        
        precipitation
        
        sunlight
        
        wind
    - - climate depends on the sun and Earth's location relative to it
    - - seasonality
        
        earth's tilt causes seasons in the mid to upper latitudes
        
        winds facilitate the ocean currents
        
        up-welled zones attract fish and so, that's where a lot of fishing occurs
      - bodies of water
        
        ocean currents influence coastal climates
        
        coastal climates a generally very wet compare to inland climates
        
        cools off the land during the day and warms up the land during the evening
      - mountains
        
        on the coastal (windward) side, air is warm and moist and it rains a lot
        
        air cools and dries as it moves up and over the mountain so, you get a cool, dry breeze on the leeward side
        
        the side that gets more sunlight is warmer and drier
    - - this is a tiny climate that can be influenced by the tiniest things (like shade)
      - abiotic = non-living
      - biotic = living
    - - climate change = a directional change in climate that lasts for at least 30 years
      - climate change often leads to extreme weather
      - changes species distributuion
      - can cause species of plants and animals to migrate or go extinct
  - - - climograph = plot of mean temperature and precipitation in a certain region
      - some biomes have overlap
    - - physical/ climatic features
      - predominant vegetation
      - microorganisms
      - fungi
      - animals
      - ecotone = where biomes overlap
      - most biomes have layers
    - - disturbance = storms, fores, or humans
    - - Tropical forest
      - Desert
      - Savanna
      - Chaparral
      - Temperate Grassland
      - Northern Coniferous Forest
      - Temperate Broadleaf Forest
      - Tundra
  - - - Natural Range Expansions and Adaptive Radiation
        
        Range Expansion = organisms reach an area that they haven't before
        
        Adaptive Radiation = as a species expands its range, it can evolve to suit their new environment
      - Species Transplants
        
        transplants are successful only if the species and can survive AND reproduce in the new area
        
        potentially unhealthy for the current ecosystem (invasive species)
    - - other species
        
        predators (both herbivores and carnivores)
        
        sea urchins limit the amount of seaweed
    - - temperature
        
        cells can rupture if it's too cold
        
        proteins denature if it's too hot
      - Water and Oxygen
      - Salinity (salt concentration)
        
        limited osmoregulation ability
      - sunlight
      - Rocks and soil
  - - - layered
      - zones
        
        photic = photosynthesis can be done here
        
        aphotic = photosynthesis can not be done here
        
        pelagic = photic + aphotic
        
        abyssal = 2000-6000m below ocean surface
        
        benthic = bottom surface regardless of depth
        
        benthos = sand + organic/inorganic sediments + organisms living there
        
        detritus = waste from the photic zone that rains down on the benthic zone
      - thermocline = area of abrupt temperature change
      - turnover = mixing of waters
    - - Lakes
      - Wetlands
      - Streams and Rivers
      - Estuaries
      - Intertidal Zones
      - Oceanic Pelagic Zone
      - Coral Reefs
      - Marine Benthic Zone
- - - - density = individuals per unit area
      - dispersion = pattern of spacing
      - density: a dynamic perspective
        
        density can be determined by counting or other sampling techniques (for example, the mark-recapture method)
      - Patterns of Dispersion
        
        local densities may vary
        
        most common pattern of dispersion = clumped
        
        uniform = evenly spaced
        
        can be a result or territoriality
        
        random = unpredictable spacing
    - - Life tables
        
        life table = summary of survival and reproductive rates among certain age brackets
        
        cohort = group of individuals of the same age
      - Survivorship curves
        
        survivorship curve = survival data represented in a graph
        
        types of curves
        
        type I = low death rate at the beginning
        
        type II = relatively consistent death rate regardless of age
        
        type III = high death rate at the beginning
      - Reproductive rates
        
        males are often ignored because it's the females that have offspring
        
        reproductive rate = reproductive output and how it varies with age
  - - - change in population size = births + immigration - deaths- emigration OR (delta N)/ (delta t)= B-D OR R= (delta N) / (delta t) OR dN/dt = rN
    - - exponential growth occurs in an ideal environment (j-shaped curve)
  - - - population growth reaches 0 as population size nears carrying capacity
      - dN/dt = rN ((K-N)/K)
    - - real population size often has lags when compared to the logistic model
  - - - 3 components of an organism's life history
        
        when reproduction begins
        
        how often an organism reproduces
        
        how many offspring are produced per reproductive episode
      - semelparity = reproduce once and then die
      - Iteroparity = multiple reproductive episode in a lifetime
    - - the more offspring an organism has, the less care each individual gets
      - reproduction can also increase risk of death
      - 2 variations in life-histories
        
        K-selection
        
        r-selection
  - - - is emigration and immigration cancel each other out, then population grows when births > deaths
      - density independent = doesn't depend on density
      - density dependent = influenced by density
    - - population wouldn't stop growing if there wasn't a negative feedback
      - predation, for example
      - resource competition
      - disease
      - territoriality
      - Intrinsic factors
      - Toxic Waste
    - - population dynamics = how a population fluctuates from year to year
      - Stability and Fluctuation
        
        fluctuations can be cause by environmental factors and predators
      - Population cycles
        
        some are unpredictable while others have boom and bust cycles
      - Immigration, Emigration, and Metapopulations
        
        emigration increases when the population becomes too dense
        
        metapopulation = local populations linked together
  - - - population has exploded of the last 4 centuries
      - we are growing even faster than exponential growth
      - growth rate started to slow in the 1960's
      - in 2050, the population will be about 9 billion
      - Regional patterns of population change
        
        in order to have zero population growth, brith rate = death rate
        
        demographic transition = transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates usually due to increased living conditions and industrialization
        
        family planning leads to decreased population growth
      - Age Structure
        
        age structure = population in each age in a given population
        
        3 types
        
        rapid growth
        
        slow growth
        
        no growth
      - Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy
        
        infant mortality = deaths per 1000 live births
        
        life expectancy = length of live expected at birth
        
        reflects quality of life
    - - Estimates of Carrying Capacity
        
        as far as 3 centuries ago, carrying capacity estimates were made
        
        the first was made in 1679 by Anton von Leeuwenhoek
      - Limits on Human Population Size
        
        humans have multiple constraints (they need food, water, fuel, building materials, clothing, and transportation)
        
        ecological footprint = how much food and water each person needs
        
        our population can be limited by food, fuel, water, and/or waste
- - - - Tinbergen did the study on male, red-bellied stickleback fish
      - fixed action pattern = a small stimulus that leads to a pattern of unlearned actions
        
        trigger = sign stimulus
    - - environmental cues cause migration
      - migration = a regular long distance change in location
      - solar, celestial, and magnetic signals can influence where the animals go
    - - often controlled by the circadian clock
        
        responsive to light and dark
      - yearly/ seasonal behaviors are controlled by the circannual rhythms
        
        migration
        
        reproduction
    - - Forms of Animal Communication
        
        stimulus response chain = each action is the stimulus for the next action
        
        communication largely depends on lifestyle and environment
      - Pheromones
        
        pheromones= chemical odors that are used to communicate
        
        very common in mammals and insects
        
        used as reproductive or alarm signals
  - - - cross-fostering study = placing offspring of one species under care of another species and observing behavioral differences
    - - Impinting
        
        imprinting = long lasting behavioral response to a certain individual or object
        
        takes place during a critical period in development (sensitive period)
      - Spatial Learning/ Cognitive Maps
        
        spatial learning = memory of the environment's spatial structure
        
        cognitive map = animal nervous system in relation to the objects around it
      - Associative Learning
        
        associative learning = associating two experiences with each other
        
        also called classical conditioning
        
        Pavlov's dogs
        
        operant conditioning = trail and error learning
      - Cognition/ Problem Solving
        
        most complex form of learning
        
        awareness
        
        reasoning
        
        recollection
        
        judgement
        
        problem solving = devising a method to proceed around an obstacle
      - Development of learned behaviors
        
        most learned behaviors are developed in a short period of time
      - Social Learning
        
        social learning = learning by observing other animals
        
        the roots of culture
  - - - how far an individual is willing to go for foraging depends partially on the environment it lives in
      - Optimal foraging model
        
        foraging is a compromise between nutrition benefits and energy cost to get the food/ risk of getting eaten while getting food
      - Balancing risk and reward
        
        the forager has to factor in energy cost and risk of predation before deciding whether to get the food or not
    - - Mating systems and sexual dimorphism
        
        there are many types of relationships that can be had between animals
        
        Monogamous
        
        Polygamous
        
        polygyny = 1 male and several females
        
        polyandry = 1 female + several males
        
        dimorphism = how different the males and females look
      - Mating systems and parental care
        
        if the young is likely to need a lot of care, both partners are likely to stay and care for their young
        
        in animals (usually mammals) where the young only needs one parent, the other male will usually leave the female to care for the offspring herself
        
        certainty of paternity is low in species with internal fertilization which explains why male parental care is rare with both birds and mammals
      - Sexual Selection and Mate Choice
        
        Mate choice by females
        
        the males that are the showiest are the most likely to get chosen by the females to reproduce
        
        mate choice can also be dependent on imprinting
        
        mate-choice copying = individuals copy others in the population when is comes to mate choice
        
        social learning
        
        Male competition for mates
        
        competition reduces variation
        
        males will often fight over a female
      - Applying Game Theory
        
        game theory = alternative strategies when the outcome depends on other's strategies
        
        think of rock, paper, scissors (rock beats scissors, scissors beat paper, and paper beats rock)
  - - - certain genes controlled whether an individual will try to mate
      - the antidiuretic hormone allows for pair-bonding in male prairies voles (meaning that the male stick around after mating)
    - - Variation in Prey Selection
        
        western garter snake diet
        
        coastal snakes eat bannana slugs while inland snakes do not
        
        seems to be a genetic thing
      - Variation in Migratory Patterns
        
        migratory patterns are also genetic
        
        Blackcaps started migrating to Britain instead of Africa due to food availability from bird feeders in Britain
    - - altruism = selflessness, decreasing one's own fitness to increase the fitness of the population
      - not sure why it's still present despite natural selection
    - - parents often sacrifice themselves for their offpring
      - inclusive fitness = total effect and individual has by producing its own offspring and helping other close relatives
      - Hamilton's Rule and Kin Selection
        
        measures the effect of altruism on fitness
        
        3 variables
        
        benefit to recipient = extra offspring produced as a result of of an altruistic act
        
        cost = how many fewer offspring the altruistic individual produces
        
        coefficient of relatedness = fraction of genes that are shared
        
        kin selection = natural selection that favors altruism
      - Reciprocal Altruism
        
        reciprocal altruism = helping others so that they return the favor
        
        common in humans
    - - environment influences both physical and behavioral traits
      - sociobiology = study of human behavior in relation to evolution