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Processes and Patterns of Global Migration (Globalisation (Increased…
Processes and Patterns of Global Migration
Globalisation
Growth and spread of ideas around the world
Relies on links and connections between people, countries and regions
These connections between people and places have increased the level of interdependence
E.G. Trade in goods and services
Resulted in increased economic migration
Refers to the way people, cultures, money, goods and information flow between countries
Helped by improved transport, the growth of computer technology, expanding markets in the LEDW and the growth of international corporations
Increased global flows
Money and financial services
In 2013, the volume of daily foreign exchange transactions reachedUS$5 trillion worldwide
Free-market liberalisation's played a major role in fostering international trade in financial services
MNCs channel large flows of Foreign direct Investment (FDI) towards the many different states they invest in
Migrants and tourists
A record number of people migrated internationally in 2015, either for reasons of work or survival
The value of the international tourist trade doubled between 2005 and 2015 and is thought to be worth US$1 trillion annually
China now generates the highest volume of international tourismGlobal data flows have grown rapidly since the 1990s
Food, resources and manufactured goods
In 2015, the value of world trade in food, resources and manufactured commodities exceeded US$25 trillion in values
Increased development in emerging economies especially BRIC and MINT
Rising industrial demand for materials and increasing global middle class consumer demand for food, gas, and petrol are responsible for almost all growth in resource consumption across every category
Technology and ideas
Global data flows have grown rapidly since the 1990s
Most recent expansion can be attributed to the growth of social media platforms
Faster broadband and powerful handheld computers have allowed companies such as Amazon and Netflix to stream films and music on demand directly to consumers
A continuation of an older pattern of global trade and empire building, however is different due to :
Lengthened: People and goods travel far greater distances
Deepened: More aspects of everyday life are connected.g. the food you eat come from many parts of the world connecting you to far away people and places
Speeded up: Jet aircraft have sped up travel , Skype and social media platforms connect people instantly to other parts of the world
Migration
Classification
Internally displaced people: People who move within their home countries
Refugees: People who are forced to leave their homes either to flee conflict e.g. Syria, Political or religious persecution e.g. Syria, Disease e.g. Africa ebola, Natural disasters e.g. Monserrat
Prediction that Refugees due to climate change will increase
Economic migrants: People who move voluntarily for an improved quality of life
The overwhelming number of migrants
International migrants: 3-4% of World's population
The movement of people from one place to another
Global pattern
Important changes to the pattern of global migration in recent times
In the 1970s/80s, most migration was to the MEDC cities e.g. London, NY (Core-periphery system) which exacerbated the problems of the development gap
Since then world cities in the LEDW e.g. Mumbai, Lagos, have begun to act as major magnets for international migration
Generally, the larger the group of migrants the shorter distance travelled
Factors creating a shrinking world for Migrants
Internet
In 2015, a facebook group was set up called 'Stations of the forced wanderers' that helped more than 100,000 migrants exchange advice on how to avoid authorities while crossing European boarders
Easier for migrants to find potential opportunities in other countries
Increasing number of mibile phones providing internet access
The media representation of places might affect people's decisions to migrate, if a country is portrayed happily through film
Allows relationships to be maintained through Skype
Air travel
Recent expansion of the cheap flights industry through Easy-jet encouraging more people to travel
Become more affordable allowing more people to travel internationally
The growth of the global middle class has driven the expansion of flights between Asian countries
Mobile phones
In 2005, 65 of all African's owned a mobile phone. By 2015 this had risen to 60% because of falling prices and the growth of provider companies such as Kenya's Safaricom
Lack of communication used to be a big intervening obstacle and people never knew "The grass is greener"
High speed rail
Important way to travel between neighbouring countries
Railways are the chief conduit ,linking lira land urban parts of China
Drivers of migration
Poor access to markets
E.G. the EU protects its farmers by providing subsidies and placing import tariffs on goods coming from outside the EU making them more expensive and competitive
Thie WTO tries to reduce unfair trade but has failed to persuade MEDCs to abandon its protectionist policies
Trading blocs such as the UK can exacerbate problems of poverty in some parts of the world and drive migration
Disporas
The scattering of a particular nation's population e.g. China Town
For migrants it makes sense to migrate to a country where there is an established diaspora
Cultural facilities may already exist
May be easier to find a job
May be friends/ relatives to ease the transition
Chinese dispora
Neighbouring countries such as Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia along with UK and France have sgnificant communties
In many cities Chinatown districts exist
A thousand years of sea-faring trade gives this diaspora a long history
The arrival of Chinese MNCs in Africa has brought further diaspora growth in recent years
Primary commodity prices
Should give poorer countries an opportunity ro trade, make money and develop
PCP are often left low so poorer countries never have purchasing power to buy computers for schools, health equipment, and so development never takes place
Sometimes by overproducing, sometimes by poor government practice e.g. lack of expertise
Unprocessed food, timbre, minerals and energy resources
Lack of development is a driver of economic migration
Colonial and commonwealth links
Post-colonial communities have established themselves in many European countries
E.G. Large numbers of immigrants from the Caribbean settled in the UK after WW2
Gaps in the labour market after the war and London Underground went as far as interviewing drivers in Kingston
Also a demand for NHS workers and many doctors were recruited from the Indian sub-continent
In former colonies English is spoken and the textbooks in schools are often the same as those used in the UK, eliminating what could have been a barrier for migration
France is home to the descendants of many Tunisian and Algerian migrants and Belgium has migrants from the DRC
Poverty
The world can be split into core, semi periphery and periphery regions
Semi-periphery: around 80 countries, Experiencing higher rates of economic growth than in the past, Rapid factory expansion and industrialisation
Global core:around 80 countries, Have high average incomes of US$12,736 or above, office and retail industry creating a post-industrial economy
Global periphery: around 30 countries, have low average incomes of US$1,045 or less, Agriculture is a big industry
This division causes the migration of people as often people in the World's poorest regions cannot meet the basic needs
People living in emerging economies of semi-periphery regions migrate because of relative poverty
When Poland joined the EU in 2004 the GDP was $12600, 2/5ths of the UK therefore prompting the movement of 1 million young poles
Legislation permitting free movement
South America has a similar system
The Mercosur Residency Agreement allows nationals of Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, Columbia, Uruguay and Venezuela to apply for temporary residency in another member state, after 2 years this temporary residency becomes permanent
Within the EU
SE England, N France, Belgium and W Germany are "hosts" to many migrant workers
In 1995, most national boarder controls within the EU were removed as part of the Schengen Agreement (Not the UK) so passports do not need to be shown at boarders and the movement of goods and people is easier and the removal of paperwork as an intervening factor
Superpowers
A global "Superpower" is a power that exerts influence on a on worldwide scale
Initially describe the influence of the USA, Russia and the UK
USA
Does not power through direct rule but through neo-colonial strategies
Soft power: Provision of international aid, Cultural influence of media companies
Hard power: Military intervention, Forceful trade policies including sanctions, Import tariffs
Smart power: The combination of Soft and Hard power
US cultural influence through food, fashion, media is strong and has shaped global culture
The 320 million people (less than 1/20th of the population) own more than 40% of global personal wealth
China
Increasingly becoming a superpower
World's largest economy and exerts huge economic influence
FDI from China and its MNCs is predicted to total US$1,25 trillion between 2015 and 2025
The average income of China's population is still less that 1/3rd of US citizens
Lacking the Soft power of the USA partly due to the cultural isolation from the rest of the World, (Few foreign films are allowed into China and internet freedoms are restricted), Lack of democracy also impacts foreign relations
UK
Was a superpower between 1500-1900 as it exerted it's influence over its colonies
EU
As a combined group can equal the influence of the USA
Mainly the G* countries have significant influence on global policy making
A regional "Superpower" exerts significant influence over its neighbours
E.G. Nigeria, Australia, South Africa
Qatar is a tiny state in the Middle east but has the GNP in the World
It's wealth has been reinvested by the government to diversify its economy and build global influence
Benefits from international migration
Fill skills shortages such as doctors and engineers, Migrants are willing to do low paid but essential work such as construction
UK tends to get migrants from former British colonies as there are fewer language and cultural barriers and education systems often used the same techniques and textbooks
Throughout history, superpowers have encouraged migrations a growth strategy
Australia and USA have more selective migration policies
USA
"Immigrant nation"
Scottish, Irish, Italian, Greek, Jamaican, Indian
Home to around 300 million people of foreign ancestry compared to 3 million native Americans
Country has prospered over time because it has attracted so many young and talented migrants
Many of the country's most famous cultural exports are derived from culture of immigrant groups
Hamburger from Germany
African-American influenced rock and hip-hop music
Australia
Migration policies to maintain strength in any economic sector where labour shortages are evident
In 2015 only 190,000 migrants were granted access to Australia mainly from India, China, UK, Philippines, Pakistan
Japan
Not in favour of immigration
Less than 2% of Japan's population are foreign born
Migration laws made it tough for non-nationals to settle permanently (The 'pass or go home' test has a failure rate of 99%)
In view of Japan's ageing population many believe Japan will have to relax it's immigration policy
Global Hubs
Hubs like Mumbai and New York attract foreign investment and migrant workers allowing them to gain economic strength
A particularly important city which usually contains HQs and MNCs, globally renowned universities, global financial or political institutions
Migrant labour is often concentrated in global hubs
International economic migration
Migration policies
Of the 20 countries with the biggest out migration, 15 have a policy encouraging the return of their citizens including China, Mexico, Poland
The UN's 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development calls on countries ro facilitate orderly, safe, regular, responsible migration through well planned and managed migration policies
E.G. in the 1950s and 2000s the UK had 'Open door policies' due to labour shortages
Differ between countries and over time depending on labour needs
Few countries have laws preventing the out migration therefore going agains the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights article 13 exceptions: North Korea, Saudi Arabia
Interdependence
Economic: Growth of global trade where components are manufactured and assembled in different countries
Social: A family reliant on remittances
Political: countries working together in intergovernmental organisations
Environmental: When environmental concerns have resulted in countries working together e.g. Paris
Benefits:
In organisations such as the EU, migrant labour allows economic output to be maximised
Countries joined in intergovernmental organisations can work together to solve problems
Decrease in conflict
Globalisation has led to a level of interdependence between countries
Risks:
Loss of sovereignty
Increased resentment against migrants
Recession which could result in unemployment for labour workers
Backwash could result in migrants moving from periphery to core regions leading to some labour shortages
Contrasting views
Often determined by personal experience or lack of
Places with high areas of migrants including London are more willing to accept migration
Vary from person to person and place to place
Fear of losing identity and migration are causes for an increase in the nationalist parties in Europe
Remittances
Global hubs including London and LA attract large numbers of migrant workers who work low pay
Estimated $500 billion in remittances is sent home annually
Large numbers of low skilled migrant workers result in money being sent home from the source country
5% of Mexican GDP from remittances from USA
Source nation:
E.G. Money sent home to the Philippines after the GFC 2008, prevented the country going into recession
Migrants may return home with the skills learned in the host nation
Spending remittances in the source country boosts the economy
E.G. India exports 2.2 million highly skilled workers a year
The loss of a large number of the young, economically active population results in lack of investment and development "Brain drain"
Host nation:
Many migrants have entrepreneurial skills and establish successful businesses
Positive multiplier effect due to spending oney
Migrants are often willing to work for lower pay
Increase in migrants could put pressure on local resources creating a financial burden resulting in conflicts with locals
Labour shortages can be filled which could increase productivity
Migrants may fail to integrate into the host country
Refugee movement
Causes
Geo-Political
Central Africa
Due to colonial past, many boarders bear no relation to ethnic groups creating conflicts over power since independence
Powerful countries including Russia, USA, UK each have an agenda in supporting different sides which prolongs the conflict
People flee from the conflict and war including the conflict in Syria in 2011
Syria
Factions fighting against the president and each other
By April 2018, 5.6million Syrians had become refugees along with 6 million IDPs
The boarder between Sudan and Egypt is a straight line
People flee as a result of persecution, religion, ethnicity and race
Central African Republic
in 2013 a Muslim group overthrew the Christian president and many Christians were persecuted
In turn the Christians fought back and persecuted Muslims
Millions of people were displaced
Landgrabs
Occurs when individuals lose access to land they previously used threatening their livelihood
The acqusision is usually by MNCs, governments, large domestic companies and individuals
Around 60% of Cambodia's land has been handed to private displacing many people
Companies acquire land to make money from cash crops for export including palm oil, soy, sugar cane, and biofuels
In some instances land is taken from vulnerable people without being paid for
Exacerbated by the fact that indigenous groups often have no legal right to their ancestral land and sometimes lack the literacy, education and legal skills to defend their rights
E.G. Amazonian lands to logging companies
Natural disasters and climate change
Usually exacerbate rural poverty and conflict
Pushed from their homes by an increasingly hostile environment
Sudan
2 million people were displaced by land grabbing and conflict between 2003-2005, one of the main reasons for the unrest was competition over land as drought, desertification and shrinking water supplies meant there was not enough resources for all the region's population
Severe drought on the Horn of Africa since 1990 has displaced millions from Somalia and Ethiopia
Consequences
On neighbouring countries
Most refugees travel the shortest distance until they feel safe
This can result in countries surrounding area where people are fleeing receiving large numbers of refugees
Large numbers can put pressure on surrounding areas to provide refugee camps, humanitarian aid and support for refugees
Countries surrounding Syria have received far more Syrian refugees than EU countries further away
Refugees may never return home integrating into the host country
Kenya
The Dadaab refugee complex was established in 1991 for refugees from across the boarder in Somalia
Most refugees arrived after fleeing the drought in 2011
The early part of the complex is like a small town with commercial hubs linking the two countries
Children and Grandchildren have been born there
On developed economies
Benefits
Refugees can fill labour shortages or create jobs
Former Ugandan Asian refugees have created an estimate 30,000 jobs in Leicester since their arrival in 1972
May have skills that can be used saving the cost of training new workers
Disadvantages
Cost of support can be high
Refugees tend to assimilate slowly into the host nation
Often mistaken for illegal immigrants or economic migrants
Countries agreeing to the Universal Declaration of Human rights are obliged to provide refugees the right to seek and enjoy asylum
On lives of refugees
Leave their possessions, jobs, social networks, and sometimes family members often risking their lives to reach the final destination
Lack of money, citizenship and the possibility of not speaking the language can make integration hard
Refugees are unable to work and rely on aid organisations for many basic needs
Many refugees are held in refugee camps where conditions are often overcrowded and basic
Children may receive no education
In the UK a refugee given permission to stay have 28 days to find accommodation and apply for benefits before they are evicted from asylum accommodation
Actions to tackle
NGOs
Methods:
Provide aim
Advice to help governments
Charities
Refugee Action
Provides support and advice for refugees settling in the UK
Refugees international
Global, independent organisation that challenges governments and policy makers to improve the lives of refugees
Carries out field research and reports back to policy makers
UN
Intergovernmental institution with the role to provide international protection and seek permanent solutions to the problems of refugees
Services include:
Emergency assistance
transport and assistance for refugees returning home
Training and income-generating projects for refugees who resettle
Cash-based intervention
In 2018 the UNHCR proposed the 'Global compact on refugees' aiming to ease pressure on host countries enhancing refugee self-reliance and support conditions in source countries so refugees can return safely
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Difficulty in controlling boarders
Some states are relatively powerless to prevent the movement of people and resources across their boarders
A country may not have the resources to bee able to protect and control the boarders
The borders may be long and pass through relatively remote areas that lack infrastructure and government services making it difficult to identify the border
Democratic Republic of Congo
Neighbouring 9 countries
Groups fro neighbours enter the country to 'support' ethnic groups that they claim kinship with or to 'grab' the rich natural resources of the country
Caused millions of people to flee the country between the mid 1990s and 2010
Since 1999, up to 30,000 UN peacekeepers have been stationed in DRC ( largest ever deployment of UN troops)
National governments
Policies vary greatly resulting in large variations in the number of refugee applications for asylum being accepted
In 2016, the EU accepted 45% of all asylum applications
Refugees reaching Australia are held in an offshore processing centre on the Pacific island of Nauru
The total number of forcibly displaced people rose from 33.9 million to 65.6 million between 1997 and 2017
Stats:
IDPs: 40.3 million
Refugees: 17.2 million
Rural-urban migration
Push factors in rural areas
Employment pull factors
Consequences