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Ch 53 (Models of population growth ((Logistic population growth, the per…

- - - - Defined- Learning by association and making connections
      - Example- experiment with a dog and a bell.
      - cannot evolve-associations that can’t be formed are those unlikely to be of selective advantage in a native environment
    - - Defined- learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
      - Example- Skinner box or Crow vending machine
      - cannot evolve- Studies reveal that animals can learn to link many pairs of features of their environment, but not all
    - - Defined- the establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object.
      - Example- Geese following their mom
      - cannot evolve-Imprinting can take place only during a specific time period in development, called the sensitive period
    - - Defined- learning to ignore frequent and non important stimulus
      - Example- Getting used to loud train passing by house
      - Can evolve- you can get used to new surrounding and norms
    - - Defined- a behavior that is not learned but triggered by something that has a purpose.
      - Example- A goose sitting on its eggs and putting them back in nest if they fall out,or other similar looking objects. Another example is an eyebrow flash.
      - Cannot evolve- Fixed action patterns are essentially unchangeable and, once initiated, are usually carried to completion
    - - Defined- Watching something in order to learn it
      - Example- Octopus learning from watching another octopus
      - the essential challenge for research into learning is not to decide between nature (genes) and nurture (environment), but rather to explore the contributions of both nature and nurture in shaping learning and, more generally, behavior.
    - - Defined- An automatic genetically build in behavior, it is not learned, but natural. Can be evolved over time through genetic variation in species
      - Example- baby naturally holding on to things, hog nose snake can automatically play dead on its first day of life.
      - Can evolve through genetic variation since it is not learned and starts at birth of the organism
    - - Defined- using mental ability to solve problems
      - Example- candle problem, experiment with crow.
      - Can evolve- you can learn new ways to do things, solve problems, etc.
- - - - polygamous
      - individual of one sex mating with several of the other
    - - sexual dimorphism
      - The extent to which males and females differ in appearance
    - - monogamous
      - One male mating with one female
    - - Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism
      - species vary greatly with regard to mating systems, the length and number of relationships between males and females.
    - - behaviors include seeking or
        attracting mates, choosing among poten
      - behaviors include seeking or attracting mates, choosing among potential mates, competing for mates, and caring for offspring.
- - - - certainty of paternity
      - The certainty of paternity is relatively low in most species with internal fertilization because the acts of mating and birth are separated over time
      - Certainty of paternity is high when egg laying and mating occur together, as in external fertilization
    - - In mammalian species where males protect the females and young
      - lions, a male or small group of males typically cares for a harem of many females
    - - The needs of the young are an important factor constraining the evolution of mating systems
      - ex- newly hatched birds, for instance, cannot care for themselves
- - - - f inclusive fitness- the effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables close relatives to reproduce
    - - Kin selection favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives.
    - - Genetic studies in insects have revealed the existence of master
        regulatory genes that control complex behaviors
      - Evolution occurs through the passing of genes. Behaviors caused by genes can evolve over time.
      - multiple genes influence specific behaviors, such as a courtship song.
    - - Behavioral variation within a species that corresponds to environmental variation may be evidence of past evolution
    - - Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior
- - - - Mating Behavior and Mate Choice
      - mating behavior and mate choice play a major role in determining reproductive success
      - include seeking or attracting mates, choosing among potential mates, competing for mates, and caring for offspring
    - - Mate preferences of females may play a central role in the evolution of male behavior and anatomy through intersexual selection
      - A female whose mate choice is a healthy male is likely to produce more offspring that survive to reproduce
      - Mate Choice by Females
    - - Genetic Basis of Behavior
      - differences in behavior arise not from gene inactivation, but from variation in the activity or amount of a gene product
      - vasopressin-this peptide is released during mating and binds to a specific receptor in the central nervous system
      - vasopressin receptor gene is much more highly expressed in the brain of prairie voles than in the brain of meadow voles
    - - Evolution of Foraging Behavior
      - Variation in a gene called forager (for) dictates how far fruit fly larvae travel when foraging
    - - describe a behavior that reduces an animal’s individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in the population.
      - ex-A squirrel that sees a predator approach often gives a high-pitched alarm call
      - Altruism
    - - the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to produce offspring.
      - Inclusive Fitness
- - - - Geo Characteristics- create a complex network of tidal channels, islands, natural levees, and mudflats.
      - Dominant autotrophs- Saltmarsh grasses and algae, including phytoplankton
      - Chemical Characteristics-Salinity varies spatially,y also varies with the rise and fall of the tides.
      - Dominant heterotrophs- worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish species
      - Physical Characteristics- transition area between river and sea, Seawater flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during the falling tide
    - - Geo Characteristics- generally either rocky or sandy, select for particular behavior and anatomy among intertidal organism
      - Dominant autotrophs- high diversity and biomass of attached marine algae inhabit rocky intertidal zones
      - Chemical Characteristics- Oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high
      - Dominant heterotrophs- worms, clams, and predatory crustaceans
      - Physical Characteristics- periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
    - - Geo Characteristics- Headwater stream channels are often narrow, have a rocky bottom, downstream stretches of rivers are generally wide and meandering
      - Dominant autotrophs- phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants
      - Chemical Characteristics- rich in oxygen, salt and nutrient content of streams and rivers increases from the headwaters to the mouth
      - Dominant heterotrophs- great diversity of fishes and invertebrates
      - Physical Characteristics-physical characteristic of streams and rivers is the speed and volume of their flow, Headwater streams are generally cold, clear, swift, and turbulent. Farther downstream, where numerous tributaries may have joined, forming a river, the water is generally warmer
    - - Geo Characteristics- covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface and has an average depth of nearly 4,000 m
      - Dominant autotrophs- phytoplankton, including photosynthetic bacteria,
      - Chemical Characteristics- Oxygen levels are generally high. Nutrient concentrations are generally lower than in coastal waters
      - Dominant heterotrophs- zooplankton. These protists, worms, copepods, shrimp-like krill, jellies, and small larvae
      - Physical Characteristics- vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic currents
    - - Geo Characteristics-Basin wetlands develop in shallow basins, Riverine wetlands develop along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams.
      - Dominant autotrophs- pond lilies and cattails, many sedges, bald cypress, and black spruce
      - Chemical Characteristics- high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants.
      - Dominant heterotrophs- dragonflies, otters, frogs, alligators
      - Physical Characteristics-inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
    - - Geo Characteristics- require a solid substrate for attachment. A typical coral reef begins as a fringing reef on a young, high island, forming an offshore barrier reef later
      - Dominant autotrophs- Unicellular algae
      - Chemical Characteristics- require high oxygen levels and are excluded by high inputs of fresh water and nutrients
      - Dominant heterotrophs- Corals, a diverse group of cnidarians, are themselves the predominant animals on coral reef
      - Physical Characteristics- formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
    - - Geo Characteristics- Oligotrophic lakes tend to have less surface area relative to their depth than eutrophic lakes. Oligotrophic lakes may become more eutrophic over time
      - Dominant autotrophs- Rooted and floating aquatic plants
      - Chemical Characteristics-salinity, oxygen concentration, and nutrient content differ greatly among lakes and can vary with season. Oligotrophic lakes tend to be nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich. Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer and if covered with ice in winter
      - Dominant heterotrophs-Fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen.
      - Physical Characteristics-Standing bodies of water range from small ponds to very large- (thousands of square kilometers) light decreases with depth, may have seasonal termocline (a steep temperature gradient in a body of water)
    - - Geo Characteristics-Soft sediments cover most of the benthic zone. However, there are areas of rocky substrate on reefs
      - Dominant autotrophs-Photosynthetic organisms, mainly seaweeds and filamentous algae
      - Chemical Characteristics-oxygen is usually present at sufficient concentrations to support diverse animal life.
      - Dominant heterotrophs- numerous invertebrates and fishes
      - Physical Characteristics- consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone.
- - - - Seasonality
      - The changing angle of the sun over the course of the year also affects local environments
      - Earth’s tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around the sun cause strong seasonal cycles in day length, solar radiation, and temperature
      - ex- the belts of wet and dry air on either side of the equator move slightly northward and southward as the sun’s angle changes;
        this produces marked wet and dry seasons around 20° north and 20° south latitude, where many tropical deciduous forests grow.
    - - Coastal regions are also generally wetter than
        inland areas at the same latitude
      - ex- California
      - Ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass across the land
      - Bodies of Water
    - - determined largely by the input of solar energy and Earth’s movement in space
      - The sun warms the atmosphere, land, and water. This warming establishes the temperature variations, movements of air and water, and evaporation of water that can cause dramatic latitudinal variations in climate
      - Global climate pattern
    - - mountains influence air flow over land
      - When warm, moist air approaches a mountain, the air rises and cools, releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak
      - Mountains
      - On the other side, cooler, dry air descends, absorbing moisture and producing a “rain shadow.
      - rain shadows determine where many
        deserts are found, including the Mojave Desert
    - - Intense solar radiation near the equator initiates a global pattern of air circulation and precipitation
      - High temperatures in the tropics evaporate water from Earth’s surface and cause warm, wet air masses to rise, and flow toward the poles
      - Global Air Circulation and Precipitation Patterns
      - the rising air masses expand and cool, they release much of their water content, creating abundant precipitation in tropical regions
      - The high-altitude air masses, now dry, descend toward Earth around 30° north and south, absorbing moisture from the land and creating an arid climate conducive to the development of the deserts
      - At latitudes around 60° north and south, the air masses again rise and release abundant precipitation (less than tropics though)
    - - Latitudinal Variation
        in Sunlight Intensity
      - Earth’s curved shape causes latitudinal variation in the intensity of sunlight
      - Because sunlight strikes the tropics most directly, more heat and light per unit of surface area are delivered there
      - At higher latitudes, sunlight strikes Earth at an oblique angle, and thus the light energy is more diffuse on Earth’s surface
- - - - Temperature- Seasonal- summer 30-40C and winter 10-12C
      - Dominant plants- Shrubs and small trees
      - Precipitation- highly seasonal 30–50 cm
      - Dominant animals- Deer, birds, small reptiles
      - Location-midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
    - - Location- 30-70 degrees-ex- the plains and prairies of central North America
      - Precipitation-highly seasonal- between 30 and 100 cm
      - Temperature- hot summer, cold winter -10C to 30C
      - Dominant plants- grasses and forbs
      - Dominant animals- large grazers such as bison and wild horses
    - - Precipitation- Seasonal rainfall averages 30–50 cm per year. The dry season can last up to eight or nine months.
      - Temperature- warm year-round, averaging 24–29°C, more seasonal variation than in tropical forests
      - Location- equatorial and sub equatorial regions
      - Dominant plants- Grasses and small nonwoody plants called forb
      - Dominant animals- insects, especially termites, Large plant-eating mammals, lion king
    - - Temperature- range in temperature from –50°C in winter to over 20°C in summer
      - Dominant plants- cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock-conifers
      - Precipitation-ranges from 30 to 70 cm, and periodic droughts are common
      - Dominant animals- moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers, are diverse
      - Location-across northern North America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra
    - - Temperature- Temperature is variable seasonally and daily- between 50C and -30C
      - Dominant plants- low, widely scattered vegetation- cactus
      - Precipitation- low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year.
      - Dominant animals- Snake, scorpions, lizards, and arthropods
      - Location- near 30° north and south latitude
    - - Precipitation- average from about 70 to over 200 cm annually
      - Temperature- seasonal-Winter temperatures average 0°C. Summers, with temperatures up to 35°C
      - Location-mainly at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
      - Dominant plants- deciduous trees- lose all their leafs at the same time
      - Dominant animals- many mammals hibernate in winter, while many bird species migrate to warmer climates.
    - - Temperature- High year-round, averaging 25–29°C
      - Dominant plants-Broad-leaf evergreen trees in tropical rain forests, dry forest- Epiphytes such as bromeliads and orchids
      - Precipitation-relatively constant, about 200–400 cm annually, In tropical dry forests, precipitation is highly seasonal, about 150–200 cm annually, with a six- to seven-month dry season.
      - Dominant animals- lots of variety
      - Location-occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions
    - - Temperature- cold -30 to 10C
      - Dominant plants- Shrubs, mosses and short grass
      - Precipitation- averages from 20 to 60 cm annually in arctic tundra but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra
      - Dominant animals- Bears and wolfs, Large grazing musk oxen
      - Location- expansive areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of Earth’s land surface.