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Findings 8 final revisions (The Eight Forms of Capital (Human Capital (The…

- - - - “This form of social capital depends on two elements: trustworthiness of the social environment, which means that obligations will be repaid, and the actual extent of obligations held.” (Coleman, 1988)
  - - - “But without a high degree of trustworthiness among the members of the group, the institution could not exist-for a person who receives a payout early in the sequence of meetings could abscond and leave the others with a loss.” (Coleman, 1988)
  - - - “A given form of social capital that is valuable in facilitating certain actions may be useless or even harmful for others.” (Coleman, 1988)
        
        “Because purposive organizations can be actors ("corporate actors") just as persons can, relations among corporate actors can constitute social capital for them as well (with perhaps the best-known example being the sharing of information that allows price-fixing in an industry).” (Coleman, 1988)
- - - - sought answers to two burning questions: 1) How extensive is racial segregation within U.S. schools? 2) How adversely does that segregation affect educational opportunities for black students?
        
        • “I begin with a discussion of the exposure index, as contact between black students and white students was a major focal point of the Coleman Report. As Figure 1a shows, the exposure index rose rapidly between 1968 and 1980, from 22 percent to 36 percent, a change in the extent of racial interaction that has not been matched since. Over that period, the federal government was aggressively promoting school desegregation in the South, and civil rights groups were attempting to extend their efforts to other parts of the United States
        
        o “Between 1968 and 2012, the percentage white of overall student enrollment in public schools dropped from 80 percent to 51 percent. Between 1988 and 2012, when the exposure index slid 9 percentage points (from 36 percent to 27 percent), the white percentage of all public-school enrollment tumbled by 20 percentage points (from 71 percent to 51 percent). As the white population was becoming older, other groups were capturing an ever-larger share of the student population
        
         “African Americans were not replacing whites— their share of the school-age population edged upward by less than 1 percentage point over the entire 44-year time period. Rather, an influx of Hispanic and Asian families transformed the composition of the schools. The result is a declining black‒ white exposure rate: it became increasingly difficult to increase interactions between blacks and whites because there were ever-fewer whites in the schools (Rivkin, p.32, 2016).”
      - In answering the first question, James S. Coleman and his co-authors documented the de facto segregation found in all parts of the United States, including the South, where the Supreme Court had declared de jure segregation unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Regarding the second question, Coleman reported that families were more important for learning than were school resources, and, further, that school resources varied more by region than they did by a school’s racial composition within any specific region.
        
        Yet Coleman also noted that the composition of a student’s peer group was more important for learning than any other school-related factor, a finding used by the Johnson and Nixon administrations to reinforce their strenuous desegregation efforts in southern states
      - used the way that races seemed to be separated in to different neighhood to help divide the students
      - academic, economic, and social levels were causes of racial segregation in schools and communities after segregation was made illegal
      - " In 1954, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education found legally segregated schools to be unconstitutional, but it was not until the legislative and executive branches put the full strength of the federal government behind desegregation efforts, by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that serious progress was made in the South." (Rivkin, 2016. 32)
    - - • “A pronounced increase in Hispanic and Asian public-school enrollment and consequent decline in the white enrollment share, not a pattern of resegregation, has driven the fall in the exposure of black students to white schoolmates.
      - o “Between 1968 and 1980, segregation by district increased, reflecting the effects of both white flight from desegregation and longer-term trends, including suburbanization. In contrast, following 1988, segregation by district fell by almost 10 percent, from 66 to 61. Black‒white segregation among districts in 2012 is roughly 5 percent lower than it was in 1968, prior to the onset of the most far-reaching desegregation efforts
    - - • “Several studies have examined the average effect of either the introduction or the removal of desegregation programs using variation in timing across districts. Jonathan Guryan in 2002 used the desegregation plan data assembled by Welch and Light to study the change in high-school dropout rates between 1970 and 1980, and found that the implementation of desegregation during the 1970s reduced the high-school dropout rate during that period.
      - • “Taken as a whole, the evidence on racial composition, desegregation, and resegregation effects suggests that desegregation had a positive but likely uneven effect on academic and social outcomes. It is very likely the case that program effects differ by both programmatic details and context, and consequently variation in findings does not constitute evidence that some studies must be flawed. The absence of an evaluation component from most desegregation programs has both complicated efforts to measure short- and long-term program effects and hindered the development of more effective strategies to improve outcomes and reduce achievement gaps
  - - - “The Chicago race riots that occurred in 1919 were as much about contestations over space as they were about competition for jobs and the perceived threat Blacks posed as many migrated northward” (Martin & Varner, 2017, pp. 3).
      - “Control of the democratic process and the continued marginalization of people of color by members of the dominant group in positions of power and influence made the segregation of neighborhoods and schools possible” (Martin & Varner, 2017, pp. 3).
      - There were federal policies designed to limit people of color access to various housing market. As well as many other practices that concentrated large rental markets as "Ghetto" area.
    - - Understanding one’s self as moral, just, kind, and incapable of being racist, consequently, leads to a perception that racism is the problem of a select few and not a systemic and systematic approach to being. (Martin, 5)
    - - Federal policies created by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Home Owner’s Loan Corporation (HOLC) played important roles in the formation of majority minority-inner-city neighborhoods and majority-white suburban areas. (Martin, 3)
      - uesd the housing policies to help with the segregation
        
        residential segregation gives the majority of the communities resources to the white residential areas while limiting the resources such as funding or many other services for the colored residential areas.
    - - “Segregatory realism, a concept we are developing here below, draws in earnest from the same constructs and we might understand these tenets as principles to move the conversation forward” (Martin & Varner, 2017, pp. 7).
    - - The civil rights movement is considered one other most important movements in the nation because of the impact it had on the lives of others. The people that participated in this movements essentially held a mirror to the nation and showed people how bad their actions truly were.
      - These males were clearly judged by the color of their skin and not by the content of their character as King and others hoped; even in death, the character of these unarmed men was questioned and often (mis) represented in such a way as to justify their deaths—even blame them for causing their own deaths—in the court of public opinion and in the eyes of the largely White judiciary (Bouie, 2014). (Martin, 5)
      - Unfortunately, Blacks still endured slavery by another name and continued to experience unequal treatment in all areas of life, including with respect to the neighborhoods and schools to which they had access (Blackmon, 2008). (Martin, 4)
      - Civil Rights Movement – goal of getting legal and constitutional rights within the African American communities around the world, and etc.
        
        “Participants in the movement held up a mirror to the nation and challenged the leadership and citizens to live up to the values professed in some of the nation’s founding documents. Hundreds of thousands of Americans continued the struggle for human dignity and constitutional protections” (Martin & Varner, 2017, pp. 4).
- - - - "Eugenics exhibitions at state fairs, national events, and museums were staples throughout the interwar period. These exhibits introduced the burgeoning American middle class to the social perils that eugenics promised to ameliorate and to the potential of future progress. Better Baby and Fitter Family contests pointed the way upward (positive eugenics). The need for negative eugenics was bluntly illustrated by dire warnings of race suicide through the dysgenic action of racial poisons such as alcohol, tuberculosis, venereal diseases and feeblemindedness, all leading to racial degeneracy via neo-Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics."
      - “The exhibit arrived in California, which led all states in eugenic sterilization procedures, in the summer of 1934. The exhibit occupied 3000 square feet in the Pasadena Civic Auditorium and was heralded by newspaper and radio coverage."
        
        They thought that the white race needed to be purified.
        
        other races were undesirable
        
        tried to wipe out minority groups
        
        illnesses and diseases were undesirable
    - - "The most common method of “direct scientific observation” was the study of pedigree charts, as popularized by Davenport, Goddard, and other eugenicists. These charts illustrated the inheritance of feeble mindedness and other social ills in simple Mendelian fashion, and experimentally confirmed the danger of race-mixing, and the threat of “race suicide” with the uncontrolled reproduction of racial undesirables."
        
        "The insiders who formed the AES and its committee on formal education managed to get their own gospels of American eugenics into the classrooms and libraries without being watered down or filtered by intermediates who did not share their religious zeal for the subject."
    - - “Like their college counterparts, most high school students’ first foray into eugenics was usually in biology class” (672).
    - - “The number of American colleges and universities offering separate eugenics courses grew from 44 in 1914 to 376 in 1928 when 20,000 students were enrolled (Cravens, 1978, p. 53)” (671).
      - “By 1914, Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, Brown, Wisconsin, Virginia, Northwestern, and Clark all offered courses devoted to eugenics. In 1912, Roswell H. Johnson began a eugenics course at the University of Pittsburgh and a large number of textbooks began to appear…” (671).
    - - “The peak of eugenic education for women did not occur until the 1930s when the impacts and social dislocations of the Great Depression fostered a new focus on the family, traditional morality, and gender roles.” (Kohlman, 2012, p. 679)
      - Politics
        
        “Teddy Roosevelt placed the blame for race suicide on white womanhood” (678).
  - - - “Like their college counterparts, most high school students’ first foray into eugenics was usually in biology class”(Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 672).
    - - “The most common method of “direct scientific observation” was the study of pedigree charts, as popularized by Davenport, Goddard, and other eugenicists” (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 671)
      - “By 1914, Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, Brown, Wisconsin, Virginia, Northwestern, and Clark all offered courses devoted to eugenics. In 1912, Roswell H. Johnson began a eugenics course at the University of Pittsburgh” (Kohlman, 2013, p.671)
        
        Example: Civic Biology
        
        Number of eugenics courses grew from 44 to nearly 400 in 14 years. There was an average increase per year of nearly 24 courses
    - - Apologists dismissed eugenics as a short-lived, racist, reactionary, and pseudo-scientific aberration that was gasping for breath in North America long before the collapse of the Third Reich. (Kohlman, p. 658)
      - “For educators who choose not to forget and wish to share the history and legacy of eugenics and state-sponsored racism with their students, there is now a first-rate educational resource” (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 684).
    - - “Another persistent and perplexing dimension of eugenics education for American eugenicists and their educational agents was eugenics education for girls and women.” (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 676).
      - The Birth Control and Temperance movements as well as other contemporary feminist social-hygiene organizations tentatively supported eugenics, and vice-versa, in a somewhat tenuous symbiotic mutualism. One of the fundamental goals of eugenics was to re-establish the primacy of prolific motherhood among the “fitter classes” of women, especially female college graduates, while negating the problematic modern diversions of extensive career and educational ambitions. (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 676)
        
        Eugenicists promoted two opposing models of womanhood that suggested the importance of gender to eugenics ideology: the “mother of tomorrow” and the “moron girl.” The mother of tomorrow represented the [eugenic] procreative potential of white middle-class women, while the moron symbolized the [dysgenic] danger of female sexuality unleashed. Together these models, which carried great symbolic weight in the eugenics movement, demonstrated that the eugenic definition of womanhood was double-edged: it portrayed women as responsible not only for racial progress but also for racial destruction. (p. 15) (Kohlman, p. 676)
    - - “For educators who wish to learn more of the prophets of eugenics in formal education, two recent case studies offer an enlightening revelation of personalities, professional careers, and the impact of eugenics instruction at the college level” (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 679).
      - Hooton had a career-long (1913-1954 at Harvard) fascination with tooth decay as a metaphor for the genetic deterioration of races. (Kohlman, p. 680)
      - He [Foreman] also started a university chapter of the AES and served as an advocate for both pieces of Virginia’s 1924 eugenic legislation: one mandating compulsory sterilization for the feebleminded and the Racial Integrity Act banning interracial marriage (Dorr, 2000, p. 265). (Kohlman, p. 680)
    - - “Wherever a significant eugenics movement arose, it was quickly realized that education of the general public and the next generation of citizens would be a vital component of any large scale success in a multigenerational endeavor” (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 662)
    - - Goddard coined the word moron as a higher level of feeble minded individuals
      - Charities and social services work against evolution and natural law
      - “The history of eugenics in curriculum and its teaching in schools is gradually being rediscovered as a new generation of scholars reveals evidence that had been forgotten, suppressed, and hidden. One of the leaders in this field is Professor Steven Selden of the University of Maryland. He has written a comprehensive book and numerous journal articles on the incorporation of eugenics into curriculum, textbooks, and educational programs in America.” (Kohlman, M. J. (2013) p. 667)
      - Where we get introduced to John F. Bobbitt, G. Stanley Hall, and Edward L. Thorndike
- - - - An important one was having Negro history week where they learned about their own history.