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Chapters 51-53 (Ecology & Biosphere (Terrestrial Biomes (Savanna…

- - - - Global climate patterns are determined by the input of solar energy and earth's movement in space
    - - Seasonality
        
        Earth's tilted axis & revolution around the sun, causes seasonal cycles. Changes in day length, solar radiation, and temperature.
      - Bodies of Water
        
        ocean currents influence climate by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass across land
      - Mountains
        
        Mountains influence air flow over land, as well as the amount of sunlight.
    - - Localized patterns of climate conditions
    - - Climate change: A directional change to global climate that lasts three decades or more.
  - - - Climograph: a plot of the annual mean temperature and precipitation of a particular region
    - - Terrestrial biomes are name after their major physical or climatic features and predominate vegetation.
      - Ecotone: Area of intergradation between biomes
    - - Events such as storms, fires, or human activity that changes a community
  - - - Pelagic Zone
        
        Aphotic Zone: region with little light
        
        Photic Zone: region with sufficient light for photosynthesis
      - Abyssal Zone: 2,000-6,000 m below the surface
      - Benthic Zone: Sand, organic & inorganic sediments
        
        Communities of organisms called Benthos
        
        Detritus: dead organic matter from upper layers
      - Thermocline: narrow layer with abrupt temperature change
    - - Lakes: Standing bodies of water, ranging from a few metes to thousand of square kilometers. Varying salinity, oxygen content, and nutrient content.
      - Wetlands: a habitat inundated with water at least part of the time, low in oxygen.
      - Streams & Rivers: fast moving bodies of water, salt and nutrient content increase from headwaters to mouth, also generally oxygen rich
      - Estuaries: Transition area between river and sea, variable salinity and high nutrient content
      - Intertidal Zones: areas periodical submerged and exposed by tides. high oxygen and nutrient levels
      - Oceanic Pelagic zone: pelagic zone of ocean, high oxygen levels and lower nutrient levels
      - Coral Reefs: photic zone of shallow ocean full of various corals, high oxygen level
      - Marine Benthic Zone: benthic zone of ocean, seafloor, sufficient oxygen concentrations
  - - - Range Expansions & Adaptive Radiation
        
        Range expansion: When organisms reach an area they did not previously exist.
        
        Adaptive Radiation: rapid evolution of the ancestral species into new species to fill ecological niches
      - Species Transplants
        
        Used to determine if dispersal is a key factor in limiting the distribution of a species
      - Dispersal: the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density
    - - Predation,herbivory, presence/absence of pollinators, food resources, parasites, pathogens, and competing organisms work as biotic limitations on species distribution
    - - Temperature
        
        Organisms function best within specific temperature ranges, temperatures outside that range may cause some organisms to expend energy to regulate internal temperatures.
      - Water & Oxygen
        
        Water effects oxygen availability in aquatic environments
      - Salinity
        
        Salt concentrations effects the osmotic balance of organisms
      - Sunlight
        
        sunlight provides the energy that drives most ecosystems
      - Rocks & Soil
        
        The pH, mineral composition, and physical structure of rock and soil limit the distribution of plants and the animals that feed on them
  - - - Location: equatorial & subequatorial regions
      - Precipitation: 30-50 cm a year & 8-9 month dry season
      - Temp: 24-29°C
      - Dominant Organisms: scattered trees, grasses & small nonwoody plants & large plant eating animals as well as predators, & insects
    - - Location: Mid-latitude coastal regions
      - Precipitation: 30-50 cm
      - Temp: 10-12°C with 30°C summers
      - Dominant Organisms: Shrubs & small trees, browsers, amphibians, birds, reptiles & insects
    - - Location: 30° north & south latitude & interior of continents
      - Precipitation: < 30 cm a year
      - Temp: 50°C to -30°C
      - Dominant Organisms: low scattered vegetation & reptiles, small mammals, birds & insects
    - - Location: north of the Tropic of Cancer & south of the Tropic of Capricorn
      - Precipitation: 30-100 cm, periodic droughts common
      - Temp: -10°C to 30°C
      - Dominant Organisms: grasses & forbs, large grazing mammals
    - - Precipitation
        
        Rain forests: constant 200-400 cm
        
        Dry forests: 150-200 & 6-7 month dry season
      - Temp: 25-29°C
      - Location: Equatorial & Sub Equatorial regions
      - Dominant Organisms: vertically layered plant growth & High animal diversity
    - - Location: mid-latitudes
      - Precipitation: 30-70 cm some receive 300 cm
      - Temp: -50°C to 20°C
      - Dominant Organisms: cone-bearing trees & migratory birds, large mammals
    - - Location: Arctic circle
      - Precipitation: 20-60 cm, some exceed 100 cm
      - Temp: -30 to 10°C
      - Dominant Organisms: Herbaceous, mosses, grasses, shrubs & large herbivores, bears, wolves, birds
    - - Location: mid-latitudes of northern hemisphere
      - Precipitation: 70-200 cm
      - Temp: 0-35°C
      - Dominant Organisms: vertical layers, deciduous trees & various mammals, birds, & insects
- - - - Density
        
        The number of individuals per unit area or volume
        
        Determined by counting individuals, or by estimation.
        
        Immigration: Influx of new individuals from other areas
        
        Emigration: Movement of individuals out of a population to other areas
      - Patterns of Dispersion
        
        Clumped: individuals are aggregated in patches
        
        Uniform: evenly spaced,may result from direct interactions between individuals in the population
        
        Territoriality: The defense of a bounded physical apace against encroachment by other individuals
        
        Random: positioning of each individual in a population is independent of other individuals
      - Population: A group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
    - - Life Tables
        
        summary of the reproductive rates of individuals in specific age groups within a population
        
        Cohort: a group of individuals of the same age, followed from birth until all the individuals are dead
      - Survivorship Curves
        
        The survival rate data in a life table, represented by a plot of the proportion of a cohort still alive at each age
      - Reproductive Rates
        
        Populations are viewed by demographers in terms of females giving rise to new females.
        
        identifies how reproductive output varies with the number of breeding females and their eggs
      - Demography: the study of population statistics and how they change over time
  - - - The population size will increase with every birth and immigration, and the population will decrease with every death and emigration.
    - - populations experiencing ideal conditions increases in size by a constant proportion at each instant in time.
      - Intrinsic rate of increase
        
        The per capita rate at which an exponential growing population increases in size at each instance in time
  - - - The per capita rate of population growth approaches 0 as the popualtion size nears the carrying capacity (K)
  - - - Trade off between number of offspring and amount of resources devoted to each offspring
        
        use of resources for one function, can reduce resources available for supporting another function
      - selective pressures influence trade offs
        
        K-selection: Selection for traits advantageous at high densities
        
        r-selection: selection of traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments
    - - Organisms vary in how often they reproduce
        
        Semelparity: "one-shot" reproduction, reproduce once
        
        Iteroparity: Repeated repoduction
      - Organisms vary how many offspring are produced
        
        some produce only one offspring
        
        some produce many
  - - - Density-Dependent: when a death rate increases and a birth rate decreases with a rising density.
      - Density-Independent: When birth and death rate do not change with population density
    - - without some type of negative feedback between population density and the rate of birth and death, a population would never stop growing.
        
        Disease
        
        Predation
        
        Territoriality
        
        Intrinsic Factors
        
        Competition for Resources
        
        Toxic Wastes
    - - The fluctuation in size of a population from year to year
    - - Immigration, Emigration, & Metapopulations
        
        metapopulation: A number of local populations that are linked.
        
        Local populations occupy discrete patches of suitable habitat; which varies in size, quality, and isolation and factors that influence how many individuals move among populations.
        
        If one population goes extinct then that area it occupied may be recolonized by immigrants from other populations.
      - Populations fluctuate at unpredictable intervals, others undergo regular boom-and-bust- cycles.
  - - - Regional Population Patterns & Change
        
        In stable regional populations, birth rate is equal to death rate (not factoring effects of immigration and emigration)
        
        Demographic Translation: The movement high birth & death rates towards low birth & death rates, accompanying industrialization and improved living conditions.
      - Age Structure
        
        The relative number of individuals of each age in a population
        
        can be used to predict a population's growth trends but also can illuminate social conditions
      - Infant Mortality & Life Expectancy
        
        Infant Mortality: The number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births
        
        Life Expectancy at Birth: The predicted average length of life at birth.
    - - Carrying Capacity Estimation
        
        Carrying capacity is hard to estimate, many methods are used to try and produce estimates.
      - Limits on Human Population Size
        
        one approach to estimating earth's carrying capacity is to recognize humans have multiple constraints
        
        Ecological Footprint: The aggregate land and water area required by each person, city, or nation to produce all resources it consumes and to absorb all the waste it generates.
- - - - A sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
      - Sign Stimulus: External cue that triggers behavior
    - - A regular long distance change in location
    - - Circadian Clock: internal clock synchronized with light and dark cycles.
      - Circannual Rhythm: yearly cycles of seasons
    - - Pheromones: Chemical substances used to communicate through odors or taste.
      - Signal: a stimulus transmitted from one organism to another
      - Communication: The transmission and reception of signals between organisms.
  - - - Cross-fostering Study: Young of one species are placed in the care of adults of another species in a similar environment, The extent of the offspring's behavior change provides a measure for how the social and physical environment effects behavior.
    - - Imprinting
        
        Establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object.
        
        Sensitive Period: Specific period of time during development where imprinting occurs
      - Spatial Learning & Cognitive Maps
        
        Spatial learning: establishment of memory that reflects the environments spatial structure
        
        Cognitive maps: representation in an animals nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in it's surroundings
      - Associative Learning
        
        The ability to associate one environmental feature with another
      - Cognition & Problem Solving
        
        cognition: the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement
        
        Problem solving: The cognitive ability of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of an apparent obstacle
      - Learned Behaviors
        
        Most learned behaviors develop over a short period, some develop gradually
      - Social Learning
        
        Learning to solve problems by observing the behavior of other individuals
      - Learning: Modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences.
  - - - Optimal Model
        
        Natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the benefits
      - Balancing Risk & Reward
        
        Maximizing energy gain and minimizing energy cost have little benefit if the behavior makes the forager a meal for a predator
      - Foraging: food-obtaining behavior
    - - Systems and Dimorphism
        
        Monogamous: one male and female pairing
        
        Polygamous: one individual of one sex with several of the opposite sex
        
        sexual dimorphism: the extent that males and females appearances differ
    - - Female Mate Choice
        
        Mate Choice Copying
        
        Behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others
        
        Mate preferences of females may play a central role in the evolution of male behavior and anatomy through intersexual selection
      - Male Competition
        
        Game Theory
        
        evaluation of alternative strategies where the outcome depends on the strategies of all the individuals involved
        
        Male competition for mates can reduce the variance of males
  - - - Differences in behavior arise from variation in the activity/ amount of a gene product, not from gene inactivation.
    - - Significant differences in behavior can be found within species, but are less obvious. Behavioral variation between populations of a species correlates with the variation in environmental conditions.
    - - A behavior that reduces an animal's individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in a population.
    - - Hamilton’s Rule & Kin Selection
        
        Hamilton's rule: Natural selection favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist. (rB>C)
        
        Kin Selection: Natural selection that favors altruism by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives
      - Reciprocal Altruism
        
        altruistic behaviors towards other individuals who are not related
      - The total effect an individual; has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and providing aid that enable other close relatives to produce offspring
    - - Sociobiology: Certain behavioral characteristics exist because they are expression of genes that have been perpetuated by natural selection