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Chinese Civil War: Past Paper Questions (General: Mao's Ideology…
Chinese Civil War: Past Paper Questions
General: Mao's Ideology
key idea - ideology mattered more than anything else, revolution was a constant struggle
formalised revolutionary during Yan'an years
Mao adopted communism, because he was a strong nationalist
Marxist-Leninism - a set of principles that would give means to restore China to 'original greatness'
Mao interpreted Marxism in his own way, to suit his purposes
Mao's central belief - revolution must come from peasants (80% of population)
China lacked an urban proletariat - therefore unable to achieve a proletarian revolution
blasphemy for comintern theorists:
Mao was ignoring the key stages in 'the dialectic'
Mao rejected this analysis - believed 'genuine revolution' could be achieved by the peasants
'no power, however strong, can restrain them'
1940: Mao published reflections called 'On New Democracy'
defined revolution as a
national movement,
not as a class movement
after Japanese occupation of China in 1937, Mao declared the aim of the CCP
'the long term cooperation with all those classes, strata, political groups, and individuals who were willing to fight Japan to the end'
Causes
The Essay: Causes of Chinese Civil War (1927-36)
Paragraph 1: External Problems
China suffered military defeats in the 19th and early 20th centuries
(e.g. Sino-Japanese War in 1894)
throughout the 19th century, foreign powers had begun to increase their influence in China
began when Britain went to war with China in the Opium Wars 1838
China was exploited economically by foreign powers (e.g. by controlling ports/trade)
Foreign exploitation undermined the rule of Qing dynasty (2000+ year rule)
foreign exploitation encouraged nationalist movements
e.g. Sun Yat Sen's Revolutionary Alliance was established in 1905
Paragraph 2: Internal Problems
Imperial government attempted to introduce reforms (e.g. National assembly in 1910 but it failed)
China's population grew rapidly
by 1850, 400 million Chinese
peasants suffered from land shortages
tax evasion by rich led to increased poverty amongst peasants
Imperial Overstretch
Imperial government had a hard time controlling all its provinces
1911 Revolution
revolt vs Beijing government
caused by mutinies and growing hostilities
Qing abdicated but Sun Yatsen was 'outmanoeuvred' by Yuan Shinkai
Chinese Republic 1912 - led by Shinkai who borrowed money from abroad gave into Japanese demands
just as capable of defending China's interests as Qing
Warlord Era (1916-1927)
during this period, Beijing government barely controlled China
8 regional warlords ran different areas of the country
they defied the government and imposed their own laws
demonstrate the weakness of the central government
The May Fourth Movement: May 1919
anti government/anti foreigner protests
public found out that China had been 'humiliated' at Paris Peace Conference 1919
did not re-receive territories previously taken by German - these territories went to Japan
strengthened support for GMD (Sun Yatsen renamed Revolutionary Alliance Guomindang after 1912)
movement gave rise to CCP (founded in 1921 by a group of Uni lecturers)
Paragraph 3: The First United Front (1923 and the Beginning of the Civil War
until 1926, GMD was not strong enough to make a bid for control over China
they only controlled the South
Sun Yatsen died in 1925
Jiang rose the ranks and soon became leader
1923, GMD formed alliance with a small CPP party (Russia's Comintern helped organisation)
despite their different aims both wanted to be free from foreign control
1926-1927: GMD launched
Northern Expedition
- organised by Jiang
aim
defeat warlords
create effective national government for the whole of China
during this time the United Front had become divided into CCP and GMD
Jiang had resented the success of CCP military units
April 1927, before Jiang's forces reached Shanghai, communist-led rebellion had broken out
CCP had taken control of the city
Shanghai Massacre
Jiang rounded up and massacred 5,000 communists
Jiang had been concerned by growing peasant/proletariat support for CCP
they gained support because of marxist ideas/land reform
by 1927, there were 50,000 CCP members
Jiang's actions started a civil war (1927-1949)
'analyse the reasons for, and the results of, either the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) or the Chinese Civil War (1946-1949)'
'analyse the reasons for, and importance of, foreign intervention in the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949)'
'account the use of guerrilla warfare in the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) and estimate its contribution to Communist victory'
'with reference to either the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) or one of the Chinese Civil Wars (1927-1937 or 1946-49), to what extent was ideology the major cause of conflict?'
'to what extent did the Nationalists' failure to resolve economic crises contribute to their defeat in the Chinese Civil War (1946-1949)?'
The Essay: Causes of Chinese Civil War (1946-49)
Introduction
the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 left a power vacuum
which was eventually filled by a Civil War between GMD and CCP
Civil War halted when the Second United Front was formed in 1936 to fight Japan
once WWII ended, the Civil War resumed
Paragraph 1: Ideological Divide
both (GMC and CCP) wanted to unify China - but according to their respective ideologies
CCP: communist ideology
aim
classless society
Mao adapted his own version of Soviet communist. He wanted:
peasants to lead the revolution
to eradicated rural poverty via collective ownership
to abolish modern influence
GMC: nationalist
Jiang's shift to the right after 1927 led to the 'White Terror' (eg. Shanghai Massacre and extermination campaigns)
Paragraph 2: Failure of GMD to secure a single party state during the 'Nanjing Decade'
the failure of Jiang Jieshi to secure a single party state meant the Civil War was inevitable
failed to defeat the CCP in 1927 and wee forced to join a United Front in 1936
GMD only controlled 66% of China's population by 1936
Jiang hadn't defeated all the warlords
GMD didn't resist the Manchurian invasion in 1931
Mainly represented interests of landloreds/businessmen
lacked popular support
White Terro/Shanghai Massacre didn't fully eliminate CCP
CCP had survived and fled to Jianxi to rebuild their base
CCP gained peasant support
1930-1934, Jiang organised 5 extermination campaigns
only the 5th was successful
Mao led CCP on Long March to Yun'an
only 20,000 of 100,000 survived
new based created there in 1935
Historians
most agree that the roots of Nationalists defeat and communist victory in 1949, lie in the failings of the GMD during the Nanjing decade (1927-37)
'the Guomindang had begun to lose the political struggle during the Nanjing era, when it had failed to live up to the expectation of a modernising government'
Paragraph 3: End of WWII and Failure of US Diplomacy
failure of US to secure peace in 1946, meant cvil war broke out between CCP and GMD
as Japan withdrew, both parties wanted to secure land
as the cold war emerged in Europe, the US sought to stall a communist victory in China
General Marshall intervened to promote a coalition between GMD and CCP
both parties agreed but did not honour the agreement in practice
by February 1946, Civil War had broken out again as troops clashed in Manchuria
therefore, failure of diplomacy contributed the outbreak of civil war
Essay: Course of the Civil War (1927-36)
Paragraph 1: The Chinese Soviet Republic
communists who survived Shanghai Massacre of 1927 fled to Jiangxi province
where they established the Chinese Soviet Republic - led by Mao with the Red Army
communists gained widespread support
especially from peasants (due to land and education reforms, building schools)
Jiang saw CCP as biggest threat (even after Japan had occupied Manchuria
Paragraph 2: Second Northern Campaign, 1928
aim
capture Beijing and establish GMD control over the North
campaign was successful
defeated warlords
took over Beijing
established a National Government with Jiang as the Chairman/Ruler of China
moved Capital from Beijing to Nanjing
Paragraph 3: Jiang's Extermination Campaigns
1903-34, Jiang conducted 'extermination campaigns' to rid communists
over 1 million Chinese were killed or starved to death
Jiang prioritised campaigns against communists over the threat of Japan
'Golden opportunity' for Japan to expand into China
CCP eventually forced to retreat to remote North Province of Shaanxi
End of 1936, Japan forces occupied Chahaer and Suiyuan provinces (and 2 key ports)
Paragraph 4: The Second United Front
despite Japanese occupations, Jiang continued with extermination camps
1936: extermination campaign vs communist North
ordinary Chinese wanted to stop internal fighting and form a United Front against Japan
Jiang ignored - saw communists as a bigger threat
CCP slogan was
'Chinese do not fight Chinese
even Zhang Xueliang (commander of Jiang's main forces) asked Jiang to turn forces to Japan
12 December 1936: Jiang taken prisoner
eventually agreed to United Front
in return for being recognise as commander in Chief of Chinese forces
Stalin provided Jiang's (?) forces with Soviet Weapons
Japan launched a full-scale invasion in July 1937
'formation of the second united front ironically acted as a spur to further Japanese attacks on China'
Essay: Reasons for Communist Victory
Paragraph 1: Weakness of the GMD Nationalist Government
Jiang wanted to preserve a monopoly of power for the GMD
therefore, refused the suggestion by US of a coalition government with CCP
December 1946, widespread student demonstrations in Beijing/Shanghai against GMD government
the way in which GMD behaved in reoccupied areas held by Japanese lost them support
failed to punish those who had collaborated with Japanese
GMD officials who took over Taiwan were corrupt - provoked rebellion in 1947
GMD appointed non-Manchurian officials and commanders to run the region
GMD was
repressive
lack of popularity led to Jiang using brutal methods
led to numerous party members leaving
GMD assassinated popular poet: Wen Yiduo
in 1848, GMD secret police killed many GMD opponents in cold blood
GMD failed to control
inflation
August 1938, Gold Yuan note introduced to replace national currency
people encouraged to convert gold and foreign currency into god yuan
November, Gold Yuan collapsed - many lost savings
Paragraph 2: Jiang's Miscalculations about US
miscalculated how the war in Asia would end
assumed there would be large-scale intervention from US to drive out Japanse
hoped that once this had happened, then US troops would help fight the CCP
instead war ended abruptly
US only provided limited support to GMD
Marshall Mission (1945-46), Marshall sent to China to promote peace between GMD and CCP
Truman administration disappointed when Marshall Mission fialed
US restricted aid to Jiang - due to reports of corruption in his regime
by 1948, US realised Jiang was loosing - too late for increased aid to have any effect
Paragraph 3: Weaknesses of GMD Army
key mistake - committing majority of troops to occupation/retention of Manchuria
GMD forces spread out and vulnerable to counter-offensives by CCP
Jiang often interfered in military decision-making
had disastrous effects
GMD had low morale
discipline was brutal
many deserted - 70% desertion rate a year for some units
less food that CCP
failed to make effective use of US weaponry
Paragraph 4: Mao's Leadership
CCP emerged in 1921 - made up of mostly intellectuals
soon grew in support
1927, 58,000 CCP members (many recruited from factories)
White Terror
major blow but survivors established CCP base at Jianxi
Long March (1934) - Mao emerged as a leader
he advocated guerrilla tactics, ousted his rivals and made smart tactical decision
became an inspiring legend for propaganda purposes
chosen as Chairman of CCP by Politburo in January 1935 during the Long March
Communist set up headquarters in Yun'an
Mao advocated for a moderate approach
gained him support agains the extremist comintern members
Mao eliminated opponents
Futian Incident (1930-31)
thousands of 'rival' CCP members tortured/executed
During Civil War (1946-49)
Mao's mixture of opportunism and determination essential
initial aim
preserve northern bases
when he realised that the nationalists could be beaten he adopted an offensive strategy that forced Chiang out of mainland China
Mao's military leadership was significant
under Mao, CCP fighters transitioned from rural guerrilla fighters to modern army
Mao's self confidence and power of command
shown when he pressed for 3 key campaigns in winter 1948-49
despite doubt from his generals, they were a success
Paragraph 5: Strengths During the Yun'an Era (1935-46)
at Yun'an Mao asserted his dominance over the CCP
Rectification of Conduct Campaign of 1942
made Mao's ideas official CCP ideology
he had adapted the Marxist theory to fit China
made peasants the revolutionary class (not enough proletariat)
opposed by Bolshevik comintern members and many CCP leaders
members would report anti-Maoist behaviour (would reflect better on them)
Leadership cult of Mao developed from 1943
CCP broadened its support base and appealed beyond peasantry to other classes (middle class)
Paragraphy 6: CCP Popular Policies
during early years, CCP developed popular support
Mao in charge of peasant institute
had attracted 2 million peasants by 1927
offered solutions to poverty
promised to end foreign domination in China
land and education reforms - highly popular
however also flexible (in terms of land policy)
1946-47, CCP pursued radical land policy that involved total expropriation of landlords
Mao moderated this from 1948 when it was clear that middle peasants were being alienated
Mao advocated for
the Mass Line
CCP officials would go and live with peasants, learning from them
fair treatment of peasants (Mao's Eight Rules of Conduct)
that peasants hold local government positions
Paragraph 7: CCP Military Advantages
at the start GMD was much bigger than PLA
4.8 million compared to 1.2 million
PLA later assisted by Peasant Militias
over 2 million more
CCP able to control lost of Northern China (due to withdrawal of Japan and GMD being spread out too thinly)
CCP PLA was better disciplined than GMD forces and their moral was higher (plenty of food due to peasant support)
CCP PLA played a more active role in expelling Japanese than GMD - gained support (soviet troops handed Japanese weapons over to PLA)
Red army used guerrilla tactics (and were aided by peasants behind enemy lines)
PLA captured all of Manchuria by November 1918 - the most decisive campaign
CCP had capable generals (e.g. Lin Biao)
meant Mao didn't unnecessarily interfere with military decision making
Essay: Foreign Intervetnion
Paragraph 1: Foreign Intervention (1927-36)
League of Nations didn't add when Japan invaded
Japanese began to push from South of Great Wall into Northern China/Coastal region
Chinese were furious at the Japanese - but also at GMD who were more concerned with defeating Communists than the Japanese
Paragraph 2: Foreign Intervention from the USSR
Soviet troops entered Manchuria to help kick the final Japanese out
this contributed to the civil war because they left Japanese weaponry for the CCP/PLA to use
did not offer any additional aid
Stalin gave minor military support to Communists - he didn't want a strong neighbour, therefore pressured Mao into compromising with the nationalists
Mao resisted Stalin's pressure
1945, China emerged from WWII as a military power - but was on the brink of Civil War
Poor conditions:
high inflation (facilitated by wartime squeeze and failures of GMD government)
starvation and floods wreaked havoc
Paragraph 3: Foreign Intervention from USA
from 1941, USA lent military and financial aid to the Nationalist government
from 1943, USA began to send troops to 'support the common war effort against Japan'
USA permitted heigtened Chinese migration to the USA
US aim - establish China as a strong power and strong ally in East Asia
as political conflict in China grew - USA unsuccessfully brought rival forces together (Marshall Mission)
military truce arranged in 1946, but battles between GMD/PLA soon broke out
USA withdrew - provided financial aid but no military aid to GMD
helped GMD fund their was but their weaknesses were too great to be fixed by this