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Findings #8 (Kohlman, Eugenics (Intro (“Eugenics education was clearly…

- - - -  “Where survival of the fittest had previously ensured that society’s best would continue, we are now faced with civilization’s retrogressive policies. Our schools and our charities supply crutches to the weak in mind and morals [and thus] corrupt the streams of heredity which all admit are sufficiently turbid (Kohlman, 2012, pp. 668). (Bobbitt, 1909, p. 387)”
      -  “The mental tests that Goddard, Laughlin, Terman, Thorndike, and Yerkes (all members of the AES) developed were to be important instruments in differentiating the dysgenic “dullards” from the “eugenic gold (Kohlman, 2012, pp. 669).””
  - - - o “The short final chapter “The Next Million Years” (pp. 637-643) serves up a program on “Human Betterment,” the “Biological Background of Eugenics,” and “The Moral at the end of the Tale.” “Suggested readings” by prominent eugenicists include books by Major Leonard Darwin (What is Eugenics?, 1929), Samuel J. Holmes (Human Genetics & its Social Import, 1936), Ellsworth Huntington (Tomorrow’s Children, 1935), Popenoe and Johnson (Applied Eugenics, 1933), and Albert Wiggam (Fruit of the Family Tree, 1931) (Kohlman, 2012, pp. 675).”
  - - - “Racially motivated uses of biometrics and psychometrics as in The Bell Curve and a plethora of subtle or overt social welfare and private enterprise mutations of Francis Galton’s secular religion of racial betterment belie the common assertion of the final dénouement of eugenics in the rubble of Nazi Germany and its gas chambers (p. 683).”
- - - - “Numerous tangible consequences are associated with the forced separation of Blacks and Whites by place, including assaults on Black and Brown bodies, segregated community spaces, and disparate educational offerings for children.” (2017, p. 1).
      - “Death by residential segregation and the threat of the endurance of residential segregation as a tool to perpetuate inequality in America poses to the principle of democracy are among the most significant consequences of a legacy of the perpetuation of the myth of White superiority and Black and Brown inferiority.” (2017, p. 2).
      - “Practices such as redlining, restrictive covenants, and discrimination in the rental and sale of housing not only led to the residential segregation by race but also continue to shape Whiteness while framing narratives about what constitutes Blackness.” (2017, p. 2).
      - “We use White racial frame, a tenet of systematic racism theory, to explain the persistence of residential segregation amidst growing racial ethnic diversity in the United States and demonstrate why current efforts to narrow racial and ethnic gaps on a host of sociological indicators have failed.” (2017, p. 2).
      - “White parents have manipulated their resources within the housing sector to ensure that their children receive the benefits of suburban schooling options where higher tax bases provide a significantly more profound investment in schools.” (2017, p. 2).
      - “The reinvestment of urban resourses used to pay teachers also constributes to segregated educational experiences that serve to widen gaps among predominately White, Black, and Brown populations.” (2017, p. 2).
    - - “FHA also created a rating system that assessed the risk level of financially investing in neighborhoods based upon the racial composition of those areas.” (2017, p. 3).
      - “Other financial institutions adopted the practice of redlining and kept hundreds of thousands of people of color from owning homes and out of the single largest period of mass asset accumulation in the 20th century.’ (2017, p. 3).
      - “The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (1973) also described restrictive covenants as agreements “in which the buyer of a house promised not to see, rent, or transfer his property to families of a specific race, ethnic group, or religion” (2017, p. 3).
      - “In addition to the federal policies, there were also other practices that limited Blacks’ access to various housing markets and concentrated far too many into a largely rental market in vertical ghettos across America’s urban landscape” (2017, p. 3).
      - “The Chicago race riots that occurred in 1919 were as much about contestations over space as they were about competition for jobs and the perceived threat Blacks posed as many migrated northward” (2017, p. 3).
      - “Whites granted privileges by virtue of their birth into the dominant racial group in America also assisted in the creation and perpetuation of segregated communities through individual and collective practices.” (2017, p. 4).
    - - “The abolition of slavery and the adoption of the 14th Amendment should have been sufficient to ensure that Blacks would no longer live in bondage nor would they be treated as second-class citizens.” (2017, p. 4).
      - “Unfortunately, Blacks still endured slavery by another name and continued to experience unequal treatment in all areas of life, including with respect to the neighborhoods and schools to which they had access” (2017, p. 4).
      - “Thousands joined in protest at the senseless killing of 14-year-old Emmett Till, who was accused of and killed for whistling at a White woman” (2017, p. 4).
      - “The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s had a profound impact on society. The legislative victories changed how some individuals and institutions operated relative to race.” (2017, p. 4).
      - “Although the Voting Rights Act of 1965 put measures into place to make “one man, one vote” a reality, sections of the act are under attack today and efforts to disenfranchise black voters and other voters of color continue” (2017, p. 5).
      - “The point here, however, is that living in segregated communities and attending segregated schools often means that there is little contact between members of the dominant group and members of subordinate groups.” (2017, p. 5).
    - - “White racial frame provides an analytic by which we might understand the nature of racial privilege and marginalization with respect to the role of the dominant racial group in creating and perpetuating racial residential segregation and consequently school segregation as well as to identify some tenets for forward movement that could stop or at least curb the figurative and literal deaths experienced by people of color in America” (2017, p. 5).
      - “Relative to residential and school segregation, many Whites point to legislative and legal actions, such as Brown v. Board, to demonstrate the de jure principle that, effectively, segregation is illegal, and consequently any appearance of segregation or separation in modern times is simply coincidence and not a product of racism.” (2017, p. 6).
      - “To understand the media and community discourse about those neighborhoods, the demographics are significantly shaped by people of color, the average income is significantly lower than those in other parts of the city, and it seems that the police, newspapers, and media outlets have intentionally identified those zip codes as crime riddled and dangerous” (2017, p. 6).
      - “Segregation of people of color in the post-Brown era has created a wealth market for those employed in the educational, housing, and prison industrial complexes (Fasching-Varner et al., 2014); at the same time, when people of color are suffering from economic hardships created by segregated schooling, housing, and law enforcements, White people across a variety of sectors are getting rich.” (2017, p. 7).
    - - “We conclude this article with working tenets of “segregatory realism,” a realism that may address the segregation across sectors, especially housing and education, and that might serve thought interested in conceptualizing and renegotiating the ways in which reform is approached.” (2017, p. 7).
      - “These tenets of segratory realism are, therefore, foundational and important within the larger context that questions the very concept of democracy
        
        a. Residential segregation is in line with the design and the demands of the society. There is, consequently, no crisis in housing or education” (2017, p. 7).
        
        b. Community spaces where segregation occurs, such as housing and schools, will never serve or properly address the interests of the most marginalized and underrepresented of society, but they will do so for those from dominant and overrepresented factions of society. (2017, p. 8).
        
        c. Economic imperatives are the central driving force in decisions to sort and separate the marginalized from the oppressors in housing and in schools.
        
        d. Segregation and profiting from segregation allow for human sacrifice; populations of color and those of poor socioeconomic standing, consequently, are continually offered up in service to benefit the economic interests of Whites.
        
        e. Even if equality were achievable, the term suggests that the dominant group is still the valued people. Equality is a ruse aimed at distracting the populous by furthering assimilationist principles geared toward the privileged.
        
        f. Equity is the only course of action that can counterbalance the racist underpinnings of segregation.
    - - “Residential segregation is arguably one of the most misunderstood concepts in our society and, at the same time, is one of the most deadly for people of color and to the principle and structure of democracy in the United States.” (2017, p. 8).
      - “The isolation of communities of color from members of the dominant group often means that communities of color are subject to more environmental hazards, aggressive policing tactics, underresourced schools, greater stressors that lead to lower life expectancies as well as the exacerbation of existing chronic health issues, limited life chances and opportunities, and ultimately even greater premature death, relative to Whites.” (2017, p. 9).
      - “Within a democracy often lie the values, rights, and privileges that, if leveraged, can result in a sea change. Sadly, the revolutionary and transformative changes that are required are rarely achieved, and instead, minority groups must instead live with what scholar Bell called “peaks of progress,” which in the end only occur because they serve the interest of those in positions of power and authority” (2017, p. 9).
  - - - “…sought answers to two burning questions: 1) How extensive is racial segregation within U.S. schools? 2) How adversely does that segregation affect educational opportunities for black students?” (2016, p. 29).
      - “Regarding the second question, Coleman reported that families were more important for learning than were school resources, and, further, that school resources varied more by region than they did by a school’s racial composition within any specific region.” (2016, p. 29).
      - “If we ask whether the average black student is exposed to more white students in public school today than a half century ago, the answer is yes, although fewer than in the 1980s; after rising in the 1970s, the rate of exposure has declined markedly since 1988.” (2106, p. 30).
      - “Another measure of progress toward integration is the dissimilarity index, which measures how much the racial composition of the schools would have to change for each school to have the same percentage of whites and blacks as these groups constitute in the school-age population as a whole.” (2016, p. 30).
      - “The explanation is in the changing demographic composition of the schools: the percentage of students who are white has declined dramatically over the past 50 years, while the percentage of students who are black has changed very little.” (2016, p. 30).
    - - “In 1954, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education found legally segregated schools to be unconstitutional, but it was not until the legislative and executive branches put the full strength of the federal government behind desegregation efforts, by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that serious progress was made in the South.” (2016, p. 31).
      - “The dissimilarity index measures the extent to which schools and the overall student population are racially dissimilar, by calculating the percentage of blacks that would need to change schools if all schools were to have the same percentage of black students” (2016, p. 31).
    - - “—the percentage of blacks who would need to change schools if blacks and whites were to attend each school in the same percentage as their percentage of public school enrollment.” (2016, p. 32).
      - “This school dissimilarity index fell from 81 percent to 71 percent between 1968 and 1980, when southern schools were taking strong steps to eliminate de jure segregation. And it continued to decline—albeit at a slower pace—after 1980, falling to 66 percent by 2012.” (2016, p. 32).
      - “Between 1968 and 2012, the percentage white of overall student enrollment in public schools dropped from 80 percent to 51 percent. Between 1988 and 2012, when the exposure index slid 9 percentage points (from 36 percent to 27 percent), the white percentage of all public-school enrollment tumbled by 20 percentage points (from 71 percent to 51 percent). “ (2016, p. 32).
      - “The steps taken to desegregate schools and increase black student exposure to white students were not strong enough after 1980 to offset the demographic shifts that were increasing the amount of contact between both whites and blacks and the children of immigrants from Latin America, Asia, and elsewhere.” (2016, p. 32).
    - - “A pronounced increase in Hispanic and Asian public-school enrollment and consequent decline in the white enrollment share, not a pattern of resegregation, has driven the fall in the exposure of black students to white schoolmates” (2016, p. 33).
      - “The 1974 Supreme Court decision in Millikin v. Bradley found no constitutional violation when de facto segregation resulted from the private choices of individuals to live in one part of a metropolitan area rather than another.” (2016, p. 34).
      - “Housing patterns are the primary determinant of segregation among districts, but the district dissimilarity index provides only a crude measure of the extent of housing segregation.” (2016, p. 35).
      - “First, private school‒enrollment levels influence the measure of district segregation. Second, trends in segregation by district do not capture changes in residential segregation within districts.” (2016, p. 35).
      - “Among other findings, they concluded that 1) white enrollment declined much more in the year of plan implementation than in subsequent years, and 2) pairing and clustering, the desegregation technique that involved the joining of schools with initially very different black and white enrollment shares into a single attendance zone, produced the largest average white-enrollment losses surrounding plan implementation in the period of greatest desegregation activity.” (2016, p. 35).
      - “Apparently, the costs to families of moving out of the countywide district for predominantly white outlying areas are so large they more than offset any perceived advantage of escaping the changes in the demographic composition of the schools.” (2016, p. 35).
    - - “The Coleman Report revealed substantial achievement differences by school racial composition and emphasized the importance of considering various factors that contributed to those differences” (2016, p. 36).
        
        “different facilities and curricula in the school itself, variations in educational deficiency or proficiency of fellow students that are correlated with race, effects due to racial composition of the student body apart from its level of educational proficiency.” (2016, p. 36).
      - “The timing coincides with the desegregation of many school districts, especially in the South, but other policy, economic, and social changes may also have influenced the achievement gap.” (2016, p. 36).
      - “We find that black achievement levels are negatively associated with the percentage black in a grade, indicating that desegregation policies that reduced this percentage were having the desired effect.” (2016, p. 36).
      - “In a 2014 study, Stephen Billings and his colleagues used administrative data and variation in school assignments for students who lived on opposite sides of new catchment area boundaries in Charlotte-Mecklenburg, North Carolina, following the district’s release from court supervision to identify the effects of changes in racial composition and school resources.” (2016, p. 36).
      - “Taken as a whole, the evidence on racial composition, desegregation, and resegregation effects suggests that desegregation had a positive but likely uneven effect on academic and social outcomes.” (2016, p. 37).
    - - “Half a century has passed since the publication of the Coleman Report, and the persistent racial gaps in achievement, academic attainment, earnings, crime, poverty, and extensive school segregation that remain provide prima facie evidence that equality of opportunity remains elusive.” (2016, p. 37).
      - “Nevertheless, the report served as a catalyst for a fundamental change in education research and the framework within which policymakers, educators, and citizens conduct debates over education policy.” (2016, p. 37).
- - - - Eight Forms of Capital
        
        “In Permaculture: A Designers’ Manual, Bill Mollison offers and expands on a categorization of assets based on their potential: Degenerative, Generative, Procreative, Informational, Conservative” (Roland,2011, pg.58).
      - Financial Capital
        
        “We are most familiar with financial capital: money, currencies, securities and other instruments of the global financial system. The current global society focuses enormous amounts of attention on financial capital. It is our primary tool for exchanging goods and services with other humans. It can be a powerful tool for oppression, or (potentially) liberation.” (Roland 2011, p. 58)
      - Social Capital
        
        “Influence and connections are social capital” (Roland,2011, pg.58).
        
        “A person or entity who has ‘good social capital’ can ask favors, influence decisions and communicate efficiently” (Roland,2011, pg.58).
      - Material Capital
        
        “Non-living physical objects form material capital.” (Roland, E. 2011, p.1)
        
        “Raw and processed resources like stone, metal, timber, and fossil fuels are ‘complexed’ with each other to create more sophisticated materials or structures.” (Roland, E. 2011, p.1)
        
        Living Capital
        
        “Measure your wealth in ounces, acres, and hooves”. Living capital is made up of the animals, plants, water and soil of our land – the true basis for life on our planet.” (Roland, E. 2011. P.2 “Permaculture design teaches us the principles and practices for the rapid creation of living capital. Permaculture encourages us to share the abundance of living capital rather than the intangible ‘wealth’ of financial capital.” (Roland, E. 2011, p.2)
        
        “A precious metal dealer who attended both Financial Permaculture courses advises, “Rather than US on obtaining intellectual capital or ‘truth’, though it is often motivated by the desire for financial or social capital. For example, ‘going to university’ is primarily an exchange of financial capital for intellectual capital. It is supposed to prepare people for the rest of their lives in the world.” (Roland, E. 2011, p. 2)
      - Spiritual Capital
        
        “In spiritual capital, there again enters the concept that capital can be in the form of equity (gathering positive spiritual experience/understanding/attainment) OR in the form of debt.” (Roland 2011, p. 59)
      - Cultural Capital
        
        “Cultural capital describes the shared internal and external processes of a community – the works of art and theater, the songs that every child learns, the ability to come together in celebration of the harvest or for a religious holiday. Cultural capital cannot be gathered by individuals alone.” (Roland 2011, p. 59)
      - Financial Capital
        “We are most familiar with financial capital: money, currencies, securities and other instruments of the global financial system.” (Roland, E. 2011, p.1)
    - - Criticisms and Revisions
        
        “The economic stream, on the other hand, flies in the face of empirical reality: persons' actions are shaped, redirected, constrained by the social context; norms, interpersonal trust, social networks, and social organization are important in the functioning not only of the society but also of the economy.” (Coleman, 96)
        
        “The F-connection is families, friends, and firms, and Ben-Porath, drawing on literature in anthropology and sociology as well as economics, shows the way these forms of social organization affect economic exchange.” (Coleman, 96)
        
        “The sociological stream has what may be a fatal flaw as a theoretical enterprise: the actor has no "engine of action." The actor is shaped by the environment, but there are no internal springs of action that give the actor a purpose or direction.” (Coleman, 96)
        
        “He argues that, even in the new institutional economics, there is a failure to recognize the importance of concrete personal relations and networks of relations-what he calls "embeddedness"-in generating trust, in establishing expectations, and in creating and enforcing norms” (Coleman, 97)
        
        “All this work, both by economists and by sociologists, has constituted a revisionist analysis of the functioning of economic systems. Broadly, it can be said to maintain the conception of rational action but to superimpose on it social and institutional organization-either endogenously generated, as in the functionalist explanations of some of the new institutional economists, or as exogenous factors, as in the more proximate- causally oriented work of some sociologists.” (Coleman, 97)
      - Social Capital
        
        “The reason for this difference can be described as a difference in social capital available in Jerusalem and suburban Detroit. In Jerusalem, the normative structure ensures that unattended children will be "looked after" by adults in the vicinity, while no such normative structure exists in most metropolitan areas of the United States.” (Coleman, 100)
        
        “Observation of the wholesale diamond market indicates that these close ties, through family, community, and religious affiliation, provide the insurance that is necessary to facilitate the transactions in the market. If any member of this community defected through substituting other stones or through stealing stones in his temporary possession, he would lose family, religious, and community ties.” (Coleman, 99)
        
        “Like other forms of capital, social capital is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible. Like physical capital and human capital, social capital is not completely fungible but may be specific to certain activities.” (Coleman, 98)
        
        “Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities, with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors-whether persons or corporate actors-within the structure” (Coleman, 98)
        
        “Unlike other forms of capital, social capital inheres in the structure of relations between actors and among actors. It is not lodged either in the actors themselves or in physical implements of production. Because purposive organizations can be actors ("corporate actors") just as persons can, relations among corporate actors can constitute social capital for them as well (with perhaps the best-known example being the sharing of information that allows price-fixing in an industry).” (Coleman, 98)
      - Human Capital and Social Capital
        
        “Probably the most important and most original development in the eco- nomics of education in the past 30 years has been the idea that the concept of physical capital as embodied in tools, machines, and other productive equipment can be extended to include human capital as well (see Schultz 1961; Becker 1964).” (Coleman, 100)
        
        “If physical capital is wholly tangible, being embodied in observable material form, and human capital is less tangible, being embodied in the skills and knowledge acquired by an individual, social capital is less tangible yet, for it exists in the relations among persons.”(Coleman, J., 1988, p.101)
        
        “Just as physical capital is created by changes in materials to form tools that facilitate production, human capital is created by changes in persons that bring about skills and capabilities that make them able to act in new ways.” (Coleman, 100)
        
        “ Just as physical capital and human capital facilitate productive activity, social capital does as well. For example, a group within which there is extensive trustworthiness and extensive trust is able to accomplish much more than a comparable group without that trustworthiness and trust.” (Coleman, 101
      - Forms of Social Capital
        
        “The value of the concept of social capital lies first in the fact that it identifies certain aspects of social structure by their functions, just as the concept "chair" identifies certain physical objects by their function, de- spite differences in form, appearance, and construction. The function identified by the concept of "social capital" is the value of these aspects of social structure to actors as resources that they can use to achieve their interest” (Coleman, 101)
        
        “In previous work, Lin (1988) and De Graf and Flap (1988), from a perspective of methodological individualism similar to that used in this paper, have shown how informal social resources are used instrumentally in achieving occupational mobility in the United States and, to a lesser extent, West Germany and the Netherlands.” (Coleman, 102)
        
        “By identifying this function of certain aspects of social structure, the concept of social capital constitutes both an aid in accounting for different outcomes at the level of individual actors and an aid toward making the micro-to-macro transitions without elaborating the social structural de- tails through which this occurs. For example, in characterizing the clan- destine study circles of South Korean radical students as constituting social capital that these students can use in their revolutionary activities, we assert that the groups constitute a resource that aids in moving from individual protest to organized revolt.” (Coleman, 101)
        
        “It is true, of course, that for other purposes one wants to investigate the details of such organizational resources, to understand the elements that are critical to their usefulness as resources for such a purpose, and to examine how they came into being in a particular case. But the concept of social capital allows taking such resources and showing the way they can be combined with other resources to produce different system-level behavior or, in other cases, different outcomes for individuals” (Coleman, 101)
      - Obligations, Expectations, and Trustworthiness of Structures
        
        “But without a high degree of trustworthiness among the members of the group, the institution could not exist-for a person who receives a payout early in the sequence of meetings could abscond and leave the others with a loss.” (Coleman, 103)
        
        “This form of social capital depends on two elements: trustworthiness of the social environment, which means that obligations will be repaid, and the actual extent of obligations held.” (Coleman, 102)
        
        “If A does something for B and trusts B to reciprocate in the future, this establishes an expectation in A and an obligation on the part of B. This obligation can be conceived as a credit slip held by A for performance by B. If A holds a large number of these credit slips, for a number of persons with whom A has relations, then the analogy to financial capital is direct. These credit slips constitute a large body of credit that A can call in if necessary-unless, of course, the placement of trust has been unwise, and these are bad debts that will not be repaid.” (Coleman, 102)
        
        “Whatever the source, however, individuals in social structures with high levels of obligations outstanding at any time have more social capital on which they can draw. The density of outstanding obligations means, in effect, that the overall usefulness of the tangible resources of that social structure is amplified by their availability to others when needed.” (Coleman, 103)
        
        “The most extreme examples are in hierarchically structured extended family settings, in which a patriarch (or "godfather") holds an extraordinarily large set of obligations that he can call in at any time to get what he wants done.” (Coleman, 103)
        
        “Similarly, in political settings such as a legislature, a legislator in a position with extra resources (such as the Speaker of the House of Representatives or the Majority Leader of the Senate in the U.S. Congress) can, by effective use of resources, build up a set of obligations from other legislators that makes it possible to get legislation passed that would otherwise be stymied.” (Coleman, 103)
- - - - Research Focus and Method
        
        "Like those of the Southern studies, these authors also describe strong leadership, caring teachers, and support from the community. However, these descriptions involve geographical regions with a history of de facto rather than de jure segregation, self-selected student bodies, and teachers and principals who sometimes did not share the ethnic background of their students." (Walker, 2000, p.256)
        
        The first stage utilized the bibliographic references of articles and books known to focus on this subject and used these references to identify other articles that utilized a similar approach.
        
        Secondarily, local historical societies and book shows were scavenged for accounts of African American schools. In one case, a visit to a Southern school prompted the acquisition of the published book about the school during the segregated era.
        
        Finally, to ensure coverage, a search of the library systems was conducted using the indicators "segregated schools
        
        These descriptions provided the first documentation that segregated schools, particularly exemplary urban ones, held some value beyond that implied in the desegregation literature or described in the historical descriptions of African American schooling. For the most part, these works were ignored in the histories of education until renewed interest in the topic a decade later drew attention to their existence.
      - "Valued" Segregated Schooling and Evidence of Successful Outcomes for African American Students
        
        “However, Hundley maintains her proposition that Dunbar was a stellar institution. She concludes that Dunbar High School of Washington spent 85 years "inspiring youth, developing talent, maintaining standards, meeting national competition, and bringing to ambitious youth every cultural contact within her reach" (p. 178).” (Walker, 2000, p. 260)
      - Common Themes and Characteristics of the Segregated School
        
        Parental Support
        
        “Their contributions during this period are most often linked with the philosophy of self-help, which had motivated their parents, and are driven by the financial needs of the schools.” (Walker, 2000, p. 271)
        
        Curriculum and Extracurricular Activities
        
        “Foremost was the need to provide students an opportunity to develop their interests and talents. With many students unable to take dance lessons or music lessons or participate in other culturally enriching activities in the segregated worlds in which they lived, the schools used the club period to meet this need.” (Walker, 2000, p. 269)
        
        "The philosophy that motivated African American teachers and principals in their curricular efforts appears to be embedded in their understanding of the need of students and, in some setting, driven by their understanding of the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education and National Education Association objectives." (Walker, 2000, p.268)
        
        Leadership of the School Principal
        
        “Because of this neglect, the principal held the authority to hire teaches in line with his vision and fire those who did not conform. He held almost complete power over the school program.” (Walker, 2000, p. 275)
        
        Exemplary teachers
        
        “The teachers "made" the students do their work (Edwards, 1979, p. 15-16). They "made sure you got your lessons" (Davis, 1996, p. 116). They "wouldn't let you" fail to complete your work.” (Walker 1997, p265)
        
        “In this view, teachers assumed the responsibility of interacting with students beyond the confined class periods and interceding when external difficulties could prohibit the objectives they held for a particular child.” (Walker 1997, p265)
        
        “Their teachers are said to be "inspiring." Students did not want to let them down.” (Walker 1997, p265)
      - Historical Context for Educated Segregation
        
        "The most frequently documented form of involvement is financial contributions." (Walker, 2000, p. 258)
        
        In these forms of financial contributions by African Americans is the persistence of the initiatives over several decades when oppressive external circumstances could easily have prohibited parental and community involvement.(Walker 2000 p.256)
        
        For example, although the former slaves and freemen had voted in large numbers in the latter 1800s under armed forces and federally supervised elections, after 1900 Whites effectively disfranchised African Americans in a South anxious to unite under a banner of White supremacy
        
        "Of equal concern was the continuing inequality in the distribution of resources." (Walker, 2000, p. 259)
    - - Research Focus and Method
        
        “Although not widely known outside of their local audiences, these works provide some of the more complete descriptions of several segregated school environments, especially providing documentation of the schools over time” (Walker, 2000, p. 256-257).
        
        “While the similarities merit further exploration, the more narrowed focus of this review will better facilitate understanding of a particular geographical region during a defined historical period” (Walker, 2000, p. 256).
      - Historical Context for Segregated Education
        
        “Although the African Black populations were typically illiterate, this does not mean they were unintelligent. Rather, they had been educated in skills, crafts, and traditions which were often lost during centuries of slavery.
        
        “In comparison with White schools, which were receiving well funded high school education, these omissions meant that the African American community continued to be challenged to find ways to provide high school education for many of its children of high school age” (Walker, 2000, p. 259).
      - Introduction
        
        “In addition, the literature reports quantitative differences in IQ levels between Black and White students, library books, school lunch availability, and other easily measured variables” (Walker, 2000, p. 253).
        
        “African American students and their parents are alternately portrayed as complacent or appreciative recipients of the contributions of philanthropic organizations” (Walker, 2000, p. 253).
      - "Valued" Segregated Schooling and Evidence of Successful Outcomes for African American Students
        
        “What emerges from these accounts is a summation of the schools is a clear trend that some components of the schooling were valued by the principals, teachers, students, and parents who were part of the schools” (Walker, 2000, p. 263).
        
        However, the evidence confirming the relationship between the valuing and educational outcomes is scanty and provides : only snap-shots of the extent to which all or most graduates experienced success based on test scores, college attendance rates, or occupation” (Walker, 2000, p. 263-264).
      - Implications for Research
        
         “A most significant finding of this review is that none of this scholarship contradicts the earlier historical accounts in their frank descriptions of inequality. To the contrary, they confirm the presence and injustice of a system that failed to meet the needs of some of its students based on color. However, the studies do extend understanding of the schools by providing an up-close view of the education that occurred in these settings and they stand in opposition to the studies that depict African American segregated schooling as unilaterally inferior (Walker 277)”.
        
         “The case studies also need a more complete discussion of external influences (Walker 278)”.
      - Common Themes and Characteristics of the Segregated School
        
        • “The characteristics of the segregated schools can be captured in four themes. Although each theme exists in relationship with the other, this discussion separates them into the following categories: 1) exemplary teachers, 2) curriculum and extracurricular activities, 3) parental support, and 4) leadership of the school principal (Walker 264)”.
        
        Exemplary Teachers
        
        "They "made sure you got your lessons" (Davis, 1996, p. 116). They "wouldn't let you" fail to complete your work. According to Sowell (1976), teachers were "hard taskmasters" who gave lots of work, refused to lower the standards, and "if you didn't learn, you stayed after school as long as necessary to learn" (Walker 265)”.
        
         “African American teachers and principals embodied the spirit of schooling that pervaded the African American school environment after 1930 (Walker 264)”.
        
         “Consistently remembered for their high expectations for student success, for their dedication, and for their demanding teaching style, these teachers appear to have worked with the assumption that their job was to be certain that children learned the material presented (Walker 264-265)”.
        
        Curriculum and Extracurricular Activities
        
         “Academically, the schools surveyed sought whenever possible to be certain that the same curriculum was being offered to African American boys and girls as was being offered at White schools (Walker 267)”.
        
         “An extracurricular activity program that appears to be a hallmark of many schools, and which included clubs, all-school events, and special observances, complemented the academic curriculum (Walker 268)”.
        
        “The philosophy that motivated African American teachers and principals in their curricular efforts appears to be embedded in their understanding of the needs of students and, in some settings, driven by their understanding of the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education and National Education Association objectives” (Walker, 2000, p. 268).
        
         “The segregated schools also offered athletics, commonly baseball and basketball, as part of their extra-curricular activities (Walker 269)”.
        
        Conclusion
        
        “These include exemplary teachers and principals who increasingly were well trained and who created their own culture of teaching; curricular and extracurricular activities that reinforced the values of the school and community; parental support of school, both in its financial needs and its cultural programs; and school principals who provided the leadership that implemented the vision that parents and teachers held about how to uplift the race” (Walker, 2000, p. 276).
        
        Parental Support
        
        “The 1960s also saw another form of advocacy and sometimes advocates who were different from the ones who had traditionally assumed the role” (Walker, 2000, p. 272).
        
        “Another visible form of parental support was attendance at school functions. Parent teacher association meetings were reportedly well attended, as were spring and Christmas concerts, and operettas” (Walker, 2000, p. 272).
        
        Leadership of the School Principal
        
        “In addition, the principal was the chief instructional leader of the school. Operating with almost complete autonomy and armed with his educational commitment and training, the principal was able to implement a school program in keeping with his philosophy” (Walker, 2000, p. 275).
        
         “The single central figure in the segregated school was the principal (Walker 274)".
        
         “Implied rather than described in the articles, the principal also served as a role model for his professional staff (Walker 275)”.