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Findings 7 (Blanchett, W. J. (2009). A retrospective examination of urban…

- - - - “When students with disabilities were served, they were often educated in “ghettolike” isolated and “run-down” classrooms within buildings that housed students without disabilities or in separate facilities altogether.” (Blanchett 2009, p373)
        
        “The concept of normalization was based on the idea that individuals with disabilities have the right to participate in all aspects and facets of life, including the right to be educated in public schools, to have access to their peers without disabilities, to live in their communities versus institutions, and to develop the skills needed to work and engage in recreational activities.” (Blanchett 2009, p374)
- - - - It is important to try to understand pre-service teachers through both their classroom experiences and through their own words in their reflections to get a comprehensive understanding of this population. (Abdullah 2015, p. 39)
- - - - "Looking across rather than within age groups, one sees that a similar gap widening occurs as older children increase their advantage over their younger counterparts when they are offered the same intervention given to younger children. For example, Jones, Ridgeway, and Bremner (1983) demonstrated differential gains for strategy acquisition across developmental levels. In their study, 84 children were divided into three age groups, ranging from 5 to 12 years of age, and were tested on a memory task both before and after being given an intervention in the use of a mnemonic strategy."
      - "We begin with several examples of experimental educational interventions that contrasted the performance of nongifted students to their gifted peers. Such performance based interventions provide evidence of the potential for gap widening when traditionally targeted interventions are universalized. Earlier we described the ﬁndings of Borkowski and Peck (1986), who demonstrated gap widening when a strategy-training intervention disproportionately beneﬁted the gifted students. In another example within the same domain, Scruggs and Mastropieri (1988) demonstrated that in high-structure and low-structure strategy training, gifted students signiﬁcantly outperformed nongifted students in terms of training, transfer, and retests and on a number of strategies reportedly used."
    - - “if policymakers intend some cognitive interventions to close preexisting gaps, then such demonstrations underscore the need for more focused, targeted interventions that boost the lower scoring group without adding to the higher scoring group’s preintervention advantage.” (Ceci, 2005, pg. 153)
      -  “They reported that although the intervention improved the vocabulary of all children, analyses of pre- and posttest vocabulary measures revealed signiﬁcant interactions between testing conditions and children’s ability” (Ceci, 2005, pg. 153)
    - -  “may be more likely to utilize it than their more advantaged peers if it is not advertised as a program targeted to them. Hence, such programs actually end up being implicitly targeted to disadvantaged groups yet made politically acceptable to taxpayers because the programs are ostensibly open to all groups.” (Ceci, 2005, pg. 154)
- - - - “Recent news coverage has drawn public attention to a persistent demographic pattern: An overwhelmingly White teaching force is working with a majority non-White student population (Berchini, 2015; Strauss, 2015)” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 1).
        
        “Two meta-analyses conducted over 20 years apart arrive at similar conclusions: Teachers have higher expectations of White and Asian American students and lower expectations of Latino and Black students (Baron, Tom, & Cooper, 1985; Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007)” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 2).
        
        “In particular, research using the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) found that teachers perceive Black students as putting in less effort for good grades and as being less attentive in class compared to their White peers (Ainsworth-Darnell & Downey, 1998; Downey & Ainsworth-Darnell, 2002)” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 2).
        
        “More recently, Cherng (2015) used the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 to show that teachers are more likely to underestimate the academic abilities of minority youth and that these underestimates are related to minority youth developing lower expectations for their own academic success” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 2).
        
        “Minority teachers in particular may be perceived more favorably by minority students because they can serve as role models and are particularly sensitive to the cultural needs of their students” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 2).
    - - “The MET study collected data on 2,756 teachers in 317 schools in 6 U.S. school districts during the academic years of 2009– 2010 and 2010–2011” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 2).
    - - “The key independent variable in these analyses is the teacher race/ethnicity. This categorical variable represents whether the teacher is Latino, Black, or White, with White serving as the reference category” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 3).
        
        “Student race/ethnicity is a categorical variable that indicates whether the student is Asian, Latino, Black, Other, or White, with White serving as the reference category. The sex of the student is measured in a binary variable that indicates whether the student is female (coded 1 if female and 0 if male). Age is a continuous variable representing the age, in years, of the student” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 3).
        
        “A measure of the student’s academic achievement, which may shape his or her perceptions of teachers, is also included” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 3).
    - - “On seven and five measures, students have more favorable perceptions of Latino and Black teachers, respectively, than White teachers” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
        
        “Overall, results in Tables 3 and 4 echo those of Table 2: There is consistent evidence that students have more favorable perceptions of minority teachers than White teachers” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
        
        “In virtually all models, Latino teachers are more positively perceived by students across the seven outcome measures” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
        
        “Students perceive Black teachers more than their White peers to hold students to high academic standards and support their efforts (Challenge: Models 1, Table 3), to help them organize content (Consolidate: Models 3, Table 3), and to explain clearly ideas and concepts and provide useful feedback (Clarify: Models 6, Table 4)” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
      - “In general, minority students have more positive perceptions of their teachers than White students” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
        
        “Moreover, female students also have more favorable perceptions of teachers across six of the seven outcome measures (the exception is control, for which girls are similar in their perceptions to boys)” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
        
        “There is consistent evidence that female teachers are more favorably perceived by students than male teachers. There is some evidence that teacher experience is negatively associated with teacher perceptions, which may be explained by students recognizing that new teachers often have to try harder than their more experienced peers” (Cherng and Halpin, 2016, p. 5).
- - - - CONNECTION: Minorities and lower class students are already predisposed to disadvantaged in numerous academic fields.