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Childhood Amnesia (Theoretical Explanations (Cog Discontinuity (Are…

- - - - Age 0-2
        
        Absolute amnesia
        
        Very few, scattered memories
        
        Images rather than events
      - Age 2-4/5/6/7
        
        If just time then should remember more
        
        Relative amnesia - don't remember as many things as in other stages of life
        
        Sig increase in number of events recalled per year
      - Research
        
        Cleveland & Reese (2008)
        
        Events before 2, 50% of 51/2 yrs recall accurate
        
        For events after 2, 75% accurate
        
        Percentage of events with any accurate info as function of time point of original event - qualitative shift (25-32 mnths) changes in accuracy
        
        Bruce et al (2005) - Memory fragments originate earlier (3.3 vs 4 yrs)
        
        Strange et al (2008)
        
        Adults more susceptible to false memories if told even occurred during period of childhood amnesia
        
        Personal event vs memory fragment (frag = earlier)
        
        Easier to implant false memory if told it happened at 2 rather than 10yrs > reject as can compare to other memories
    - - Evidence of implicit recognition memory despite lack of explicit
        
        Implicit (non-declarative)
        
        Learned + automatic but not easily described
        
        Cannot be purposefully recalled
        
        Contents not easily described
        
        E.g. not remembering how to tie your shoes
        
        Explicit (declarative or episodic)
        
        Purposefully recalled + can explain
        
        Can be purposefully recalled, reflected on
        
        Can be described in words
        
        E.g. having tantrum when can't wear new shoes to bed
      - Event memory: (infants' + toddlers') ability to recall a specific event (LTM for 2 or earlier)
      - Relevance to discontinuity question
      - Precursor to autobio?
      - Deferred imitation method
        
        Actions with novel objects
        
        Meltzoff
        
        9 to 24 mnths witness novel activities with unfamiliar objects
        
        24 hrs later, even 9 mnths can imitate
        
        As age increases, remember more events, and remember over longer delays
        
        Are able to form LTM
        
        Gergely et al (2002)
        
        Not normal action > compare with group that didn't see unusual action
        
        14mnth = more likely yo switch on light with hands if hands appeared tied
        
        Turning on light with head
        
        Engaged in rational rather than literal imitation
        
        Brauer
        
        11 - 24 mths
        
        Sequence of temporally-ordered actions
        
        Steadily increase across age in number of components recalled & length of delay before forgetting
        
        Simcock & Hayne (2002)
        
        2-4yrs
        
        Magic shrinking machine
        
        Observe machine that 'shrinks' doll
        
        Greater verbal ability among older children
        
        Lang aqcuistion may cause reorganisaion
        
        24 hr recall
        
        Can;t explain themselves so difficult to remember/retrieve
      - Answer
        
        Appears no - evidence for LTM (may just be inaccessible)
        
        Arguable whether event memory is truly autobiographical
    - - Rate of forgetting decreased with age
        
        Younger children forget things quicker
        
        Kids & teens have more memories from before age 3 than adults
        
        Younger kids have more memories of earlier events than older
        
        Peterson et al (2009) - younger = earlier memories
        
        Peterson et al (2005) - recall sig earlier in children
        
        Memories initially acceptable = disappearing
      - Quality of memory traces increased with age
        
        Prospective study
        
        Memory for traumatic injury
        
        Interview after 6, 12, 24 mnths
        
        Younger groups = unable to verbalise when first asked
        
        Interviewed at time of event > longitudinal
        
        Older group can verbalise at time of recall
        
        Group differences in verbalisation
        
        Effect of verbal ability at time of event on later recall
        
        Predict ability to recall correctly
        
        Results
        
        Youngest = 1/2 nothing, 1/2 fragments
        
        Middle = some nothing, fragments, central
        
        Oldest = 1/3 accurate, also inaccurate
      - Answer
        
        Yes - evidence things are formed and forgotten
        
        Acquisition of expressive lang may help
        
        Improve strength of memory traces
    - - Start remembering events from 3/4 yrs with gradual increase ~7yrs
      - Historically either late development OR aspects of event render it inaccessible
      - Neither alone can fully account
      - Complementary processes account
        
        Early gradual deve of ability
        
        Accelerated rate of forgetting in childhood relative to adult
      - Adult distribution -quality of memory traces increases, vulnerability of mnemonic traces decreases
      - Perspective brings order
  - - - Nelson & Fivush (2004)
      - Autobiographical memory emerges gradually across preschool years
      - Lang is fundamental social cultural tool in developing autobiographical memory system
        
        Children acquire autobiographical memory by learning to converse in narrative form with others about experiences
        
        Primary function is to develop life story
        
        Joint reminiscing with parents - spontaneous recall of events
        
        Acquire narrative form from about 2-4 yrs
      - Theories must explain cultural, gender and IDs - Cog dis does't address these
        
        Event type
        
        Deaths, family moves
        
        Hospitalisation, sibling births
        
        Traumatic experiences
        
        Gender
        
        Women report earlier + more memories than men
        
        Family
        
        !st born children report earlier memories
        
        Children of traditional, authoritarian parents report later memories
        
        Culture
        
        Maori > North American > Chinese & Korean
      - Emerges across preschool years
      - Contribute = basic memory ability, lang + narrative, adult memory talk, temporal understanding, understanding of self/others
    - - Hudson (1990)
        
        More scaffolding by parents at 2
        
        More independent contributions at 2 1/2
      - Fivush & Hamond (1990)
        
        Event at 2 1/2
        
        Interviews after 6 + 14 wks
        
        Children provide different (accurate details) at different times
        
        Retain details that were't first spoken about
      - Two conversational styles
        
        Elaborative
        
        Rich, embellished details
        
        Child-centred
        
        Expand, ask further questions
        
        Aid autobiographical memory more
        
        Remember more details + can discuss in more elaborate/coherent ways
        
        Pragmatic
        
        Short, directive conversations; little embellishment
        
        Elicit correct answers, like memory test
        
        Repetitive questions
      - Maternal reminiscing style
        
        During early childhood predicts age of adolescents' earliest memories
        
        Prospective study
        
        2-4: mother child conversations about past events recorded
        
        12-13: Earlier memories for those whose mothers had more elaboration & less repetition
        
        Jack et al (2009)
      - Narrative quality
        
        Emotional content in children's earliest memories predicts memory survival over 2 yrs
        
        Emotion knowledge predicts autobiographical memory over time
        
        Coherence in thematic content, chronology & context predict memory survival
        
        Emotionally charged = sig
      - Cultural differences in reminiscing style
        
        East asians report more 3rd person memories
        
        Emotion explaining vs emotion criticising style in US vs Chinese mothers
        
        North American vs Korean mother child reminiscing
        
        Cross-cultural perspective
        
        Basic mechanisms + contributing factors may be universal
        
        Specific ways mechanisms/factors manifest differ qualitatively
    - - Views about self vary by culture
      - East: related, interdependent
        West: autonomous, independent
      - Self knowledge
        
        Autobiographical memory
        
        Self-concept
      - Wang et al (2006)
        
        Culturally influenced self-knowledge emerges early
        
        Cultural views of the self are con-constructed through parental reminiscing
        
        Relation between self-knowledge + autobiographical memory is bidirectional
  - - - Self recognition - rouge test
      - Use of personal pronouns around 22-24 mnths
    - - Organises info same as other cog structures
      - Facilitates access to memories
      - Sets lower limit on age for memories
    - - Assessed self-recognition, maternal reminiscing style, & children's memory from 19-32 mnths
      - Both self-recognition + maternal style independently predicted memory
      - Compared sociolinguistic vs. cognitive self accounts
- - - - Collection of memories - things that happened to person at specific time/place
      - E.g. traumatic, commonplace, flashbulb
      - Clear memories from particularly poignant events
      - Emerges at ~21/2 (verbally narrate)
    - - Scarcity of adults' memories for event's that occurred before 4th birthday
      - Universal phenomenon - timings can be culturally different despite being universal
      - Can't be due solely to passage of time
  - - - Distributions of adults' autobiographical memories to age 10
      - Meta-analysis
      - Recording memories until 8 - av =3 but range 2-8
      - Uni students listing memories before 8 yrs
      - 11,000 meories to age 10
      - Steep slope from 3 - 5/6 yrs (biggest change)
      - Little remembered before 2
    - - Other end of lifespan
      - Similar pattern in early childhood
      - Peak from 10-20, then again for very recent past
      - Important transitions in self-deve
      - More more memories from 20 than other time periods > reminiscence bump
      - Self concept deve in adolescence
      - Age 13-14 for women, 15-18 for men
      - RB seen cross culturally
      - Sex differences + cultural differences