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AP Psychology Overview (Neurotransmitters (Acetycholine (Ach): excitatory…

- - - - People: Freud: founder
        -Jung: collective unconscious, ancient/universal understand of roles called archetypes; people have self and personas (masks we wear to emulate the archetypes); significant difference between these two parts of ourselves create mental disorders; dream interpretation
        -Adler: constant search of self-esteem and superiority; concept of inferiority complex
        -Horney: search for love and interpersonal relationships are our driving force; differences with men/women; emphasized conscious thought
        -Erikson: 8 stages of development
        
        Their Beliefs: Defense mechanisms = rationalization, denial, repression (the father of them all), projection, displacement, reaction formation (act the opposite of what you feel), sublimation (directing it to good uses), intellectualization
        -Unconscious thoughts drive behavior fueled on repressed feelings from early days (id, ego, and superego)
- - - - Erikson: Psychosocial Development Stages
        -Trust vs. Mistrust: infants; if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
        -Autonomy vs. Shame: toilet training; toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
        -Initiative vs. Guilt: preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
        -Industry vs. Inferiority: children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
        -Identity vs. Confusion: teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
        -Intimacy vs. Isolation: young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
        -Generativity vs. Stagnation: the middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through a family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
        -Integrity vs. Despair: when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
        
        Freud: Psychosexual Stages
        -Oral (0-18 months): pleasure centers on the mouth-- sucking, biting, and chewing
        -Anal (18-36 months): pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
        -Phallic (3-6 years): pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
        -Latency (6-puberty): dormant sexual feelings
        -Genital (puberty on): maturation of sexual interests
        
        Kohlberg: Moral Development Stages
        -Preconventional: right and wrong is determined by whether or not you will be punished
        -Conventional: you decide appropriate behavior based on what society says; "rules are rules"
        -Post-conventional: requires formal operational thinking; morality is based on universal principles applied to individual circumstances
- - - - People and their beliefs:
        -Abraham Maslow believed in the Hierarchy of Needs, which is that we work our way up a pyramid of needs, where the most basic needs must be met before we can achieve the next level. Our ultimate goal is self-actualization.
        -Carl Rogers believed in unconditional positive regard as the way to raise healthy children. Nurturing them to achieve high self-esteem and a positive self concept is important. He is the father of client-centered therapy.
- - - - People
        -Pavlov: classical conditioning and dog salivation
        -Watson: little Albert experiment, making him afraid of furry white things; conditioned phobias; applied CC to advertising
        -B.F. Skinner: the father of operant conditioning; trained pigeons to do unnatural behaviors in Skinner boxes; took Watson's "give me a person, I'll make him what you want" maxim to the extreme; wanted psychology to be more scientific, observable, and testable
        -Albert Bandura: the father of social learning theory; observation-imitation and reinforcement
        -Mary Cover Jones: desensitization and the removal of phobias
        
        Therapies:
        -Systematic desensitization: slowly introducing the object of fear to the patient until their symptoms subside and then moving them closer; teaching clients to relax in each successive level of the anxiety hierarchy = progressive relaxation
        -Aversion (remember this means "get away from") Conditioning: applying a punishment to an undesirable behavior; like making alcoholic drinks that make you violently ill; not effective if the person knows what's going on because they can cognitively blame it on the additive
        -Flooding: a type of exposure therapy that subjects a person to massive doses of what they are afraid of
        -Token Economies: based on operant conditioning principles; reinforcement tokens given for desired behavior and then later cashed in for privileges
- - - - Memory: We sometimes forget things we knew because of new things we learn, (retroactive interference). Sometimes things we already knew like driving a clutch car, hurt learning new things, like driving an automatic car. This is called proactive interference. Memories and schemas as built into neural networks that interconnect. The more often that the network fires, the easier it is to fire the next time. This is why rehearsal and relearning help you remember, so things learned over time also reinforce those neural pathways allowing you to remember information for longer. Like the Ebbinghaus curve, the first time around you have a precipitous fall and then after relearning, the fall is less.
        
        Cognitive Therapy: The goal of cognitive therapies are to get you to change negative internal sentences. Depressed people's internal thoughts turn on them and everything is framed in a way that seems negative. Even cynicism and sarcasm can become an internal sentence habit. The most famous of these therapies is Albert Ellis's Rational-Emotional therapy, in which the therapist aggressively challenges irrational thought processes and works with patients to change the habit of negative internal sentences. This therapy has the best success in the long-term for depression for the non-drug therapies. People who frame their sentences to be optimistic report higher levels of happiness. Mood can be dictated by what you think and you can make changes in the way you think through practice. Role-playing becomes reality.
- - - - Cerebral Cortex:
        -This is the upper, complex brain, which is larger in humans than other animals. It is divided into four parts called lobes, which are divided by fissures:
        -frontal lobe: responsible for complex associations among other brain parts, planning, and control of the limbic system; motor strip is located here
        -parietal lobe: holds the sensory strip
        -occipital lobe: where vision is processed and internal visualizations occur
        -temporal lobe: responsible for speech and language in Wernicke's and Broca's area
        -The brain is divided left to right between hemispheres by the corpus callosum, which allows messages to pass between the two sides. The left side is the sadder, verbal, logical, and reasoning side. The right side is the happier, intuitive, spatial, and artistic side.
        
        Lower Brain:
        -brain stem: keeps you alive and contains the reticular activating system (RAS), which regulates arousal level, the medulla, which regulates heart rate and breathing, and the thalamus, which connects the sensory apparatus and the higher brain
        -limbic system: the emotional brain. It contains the hypothalamus, which regulates basic drives (hunger, thirst, sex), the amygdala, which regulates the primitive emotions of anger and fear, and the hippocampus, which is important for short-term memory
        
        Drugs:
        -Serotonin reuptake inhibitors SSRI are anti-depressants that prevent the reabsorption ion of serotonin and lift the mood; they include Prozac, Zoloft, and Luvox
        -Thorazine and Clopazine are antipsychotics prescribed for schizophrenia. They work on the dopamine system. Dopamine excess is a possible cause of schizophrenia.
        -Lithium is a salt and it stabilizes mood; works with antidepressants for bipolar patients
        -Valium and Xanax are basically tranquilizers used for anxiety disorders.
        -Ritalin is a stimulant used for ADHD to stimulate brain activity.
        -L-Dopa is a drug that helps the brain produce dopamine, which is lacking in Parkinson's patients.