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JIGSAW GROUP (Hytten and Kelly (Kelly (Students learn about social justice…

- - - - increasing the achievement gap
    - - "Because of the self-selection process involved in deciding to take AP courses, this intervention was primarily utilized by the highest per- forming groups of achievers” (155).
        
        AP and CCP offered at lower and higher SES schools
    - - The Reality of Special Education in Practice for African American Students
        
        “…few urban educators have acknowledged the experiences of students of color labeled as having disabilities as they have addressed some of the most significant issues and challenges facing students in urban settings, a disproportionate percentage of whom are poor, African American, and Hispanic” (371).
      - What Does It Mean to “Go for Broke” for all Children in Urban Schools?
        
        ““Going for broke” means doing whatever it takes to shine the brightest lights on educational inequities experienced by poor children, African American and other children of color, children identified with disabilities, and children affected by the intersection of all of these issues.” (Blanchett, 2009, p. 385)
        
        "high-stakes testing, inadequately prepared teachers, culturally unresponsive curriculum, and No Child Left Behind"
      - Who Are the Real Beneficiaries of Failed Urban Schools and Resegregation?
        
        University/school partnerships with urban schools are seen as a business that "pimps" out the urban school.
        
        “A lot of the blame for the current state of urban education has been placed on failed urban school districts, and although I believe that some of it is justified, I caution us to remember that urban school districts and systems do not operate in a vacuum and are in fact often a microcosm of the larger American society.” (Blanchett, 2009, p. 382)
      - The Original Intent of Special Education in Theory and Practice
        
        “Moreover, research suggests that the benefits of inclusion are significant for all students. Students with disabilities who are included in general education classrooms have higher levels of social skills, are more accepted by their nondisabled peers, and have greater exposure to the general education curriculum” (Blanchett, 2009, pp. 376).
      - A Historical Analysis of Brown’s Relationship to and Effect on Special Education
        
        “In addition to prohibiting racial segregation in public education, the Brown decision was especially important in securing appropriate educational services and opportunities for students with disabilities.” (Blanchett, 2009, p. 372)
        
        When students with disabilities were served, they were often educated in “ghetto like” isolated and “run-down” classrooms within buildings that housed students without disabilities or in separate facilities altogether. Such terms as ghetto-like and run-down have often been used to describe the physical environments of some of the segregated schools," (Blanchett, 373)
      - Brown v. Board challenged the constitutionality of "separate but equal"
      - Resegregation
        
        Was legal through special education placement
        
        More African American students were labeled as needing special education in order to keep them segregated
      - From Bown to the Legal Resegregation of African American Students Through Special Education Placement
        
        IDEA is the most important education legislation for students with disabilities
        
        “They called attention to the fact that African American children were labeled as mildly mentally retarded and their White peers not labeled at all, even when White children evidenced more visibly obvious disabilities than the African American students.” (Blanchett, 2009, p. 380)
        
        African American Students are more likely to be segregated and not be placed in general education
- - - - “Before they ever start school, children begin learning informally and haphazardly—from families, television, and peers—about key social issues like race, poverty, war, gender, and sexuality. Once at school, they continue to learn about social issues, informally at least. We need to prepare and support teachers to enact a curriculum that formally addresses these social issues so that children can learn to think about, analyze, discuss, and debate them in a structured manner and respectful environment.” (Kelly & Brooks, 2009, p. 214)
        
        "Children enter preschool not “as empty slates but rather bring with them a myriad of perceptions of difference that they have taken up from their families, peers, the media and other social sources and negotiated in the representations of their own identities” (Robinson & Jones Diaz, 2006, p. 4).” (Kelly & Brooks, 2009, p. 204)
      - More so than heavily theoretical discourses, this narrative voice appeals especially
        to students and educators who are new to social justice as a framing lens as they are
        viscerally moved by experiences that are both resonant with, and foreign to, their
        own. (Hytten, 2006 g.15)
    - - "We need to prepare and support teachers to enact a curriculum that formally addresses these social issues so that children can learn to think about, analyze, discuss, and debate them in a structured manner and respectful environment.” (Kelly, 2009, P.215)
    - - Adults tend to assume that children do not have the ability to think critically and form their own opinions.
  - - - Philosophical/Conceptual
        
        aim to tease out the meaning of justice in abstract, philosophical and/or theoretical terms
      - Theoretically Specific
        
        Social justice is often written about in a way that makes it difficult for non-academics to understand.
      - Practical
        
        Offers criteria for what socially just practice in education would look like
        
        Offers lists of conditions or competencies of what would be present in a just school or in a teacher education program that is grounded on a vision of social justice
      - Ethnographic/Narrative
        
        Offer portraits of injustice related to schools and education, reflections by educators committed to social justice, and narratives about personal experiences of lived injustice
        
        Passionate and evocative. Primary focus is to capture more vividly some lived consequences of injustice and to offer rich images of more just social and educational practices
      - Democratically Grounded
        
        Charity and volunteering are good things. However, without disrupting the cause of social issues, nothing will ever begin to change.
    - - “Here she talks about the systemic, hegemonic and structural nature of oppression. She argues that oppression is built into our policies, procedures and institutions; it is more than simply the result of individual actions. She writes that the causes of oppression “are embedded in unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols, in the assumptions underlying institutional rules and the collective consequences of following those rules” (p. 41).” (Hytten & Bettez, 2011, p. 11)
- - - - Informal
        
        “Informal social networks tended to be organized around clusters of friends or other affinity groups, such as racially similar parents who discover common cultural interests or political learnings. They use these more organic networks to share information about negotiating academic hurdles and increasing educational customization.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 71)
      - Semi-formal
        
        “Semi-formal parent networks that began in organizations often extended beyond their original purpose; semi-formal networks made parents aware of extracurricular experiences and bridged geographic divisions through emails to parents about upcoming volunteer opportunities.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 71)
        
        “For example, baseball team parents might use team activities to create bonds and share information with other baseball parents.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 71)
      - Formal
        
        Formal networks developed through organizations like the PTA or through “room parents.” Room parents were groups of volunteer parents who coordinated volunteer opportunities, maintained phone trees, and served as brokers for the classroom teacher.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 70)
        
        “For example, room parents would broker relationships with parents in their children’s classrooms by distributing information about upcoming school events and volunteer opportunities.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 70-71)
    - - "Parental engagement is often regarded as the educational Holy Grail-- much desired but seldom acquired. The belief that engaged parents can help salve educational woes is, in part, supported by research findings that parental involvement and participation are associated with positive educational outcomes." (Lewis- McCoy, 2014, p. 67).
        
        Parental involvment and participation are associated and bring out positive educational outcomes. Many parents want access to their children's education and want to be more involved.
      - “In education research, parental engagement is often viewed as desirable and is associated with positive school experiences and schooling outcomes. However, parental engagement is multidimensional, and beyond the positive image that is promoted there are negative dimensions as well, which affect the access of all families to a high-quality education.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 66)
      - “To fully understand parental engagement one must look carefully at relation¬ships as they are affected by family background, cultural capital, institutional reception, and desired outcomes, as well as the relationships between groups. The process is not unidirectional (as it is often portrayed), with family back¬ground characteristics leading to stocks of cultural capital, which align with institutional rules and result in a desirable outcome. Instead, I argue such a simplistic model under considers the dynamics that exist between home and school and between different families in the same setting.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, pg. 69-70)
    - - "Informal rules of engagement were very important for home-school relations" (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 70)
      - "These small differences in availability of time, paired with educational attainment differences, led to widely divergent understandings of an engagement with local offerings" (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 72)
      - “The communication of information to families is key to ensuring that all families have equal access to resources.” (Lewis-McCoy, 71)
      - "To fully understand parental engagement, one must look carefully at relationships as they are affected by family background, cultural capital, institutional reception, and desired outcomes, as well as relationships between groups" (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 69)
- - - - Literature Review
        
        Early national studies of Federal Programs observed cross-cultural classroom behavior and noted that white children were given more access by white teachers while children of color were kept away (Stallings, 1980),
        
        Sirin, Brabeck, Satiani and Rogers Serin (2003) also point out that negative perspectives of certain cultures can prevent teachers from respecting their students. Abdullah et al. 2015, p. 35)
        
        Ladson-Billings (1992) encourages white pre-service teachers to develop self concepts and understandings of their students that are based on historical facts and current events and avoid thinking of their students of color as victims of slavery and other forms of discrimination.
      - Methodology
        
        The sample that was observed consisted of all students who identified as and presented themselves as White, consisting of 218 students. The Spring cohort also contained 17 non-white students who are not part of the sample.
        
        Analyzed 218 student essays from Foundation of Education school
        
        A great majority of the students (83 per cent) in the course were women. The diversity in the class consisted of some regional diversity, but most of the students were from the Southeast United States, specifically, Alabama and Georgia, coming from mostly homogeneous primarily white middle to upper class communities according to their essays.
      - Results
        
        Values and morals are connected with race and economic status.
      - Recommendations
      - White Folks Bad
        
        “Fifty years after school desegregation, white middle class students are still being raised in racially segregated schools (Orfield, & Lee 2007), attending segregated social and religious institutions and having little or no experience with members of other racial groups.” (Abdullah, S. A., Llanes, J. R. & Henry, D. p.34).
        
        “Pre-service teachers most naturally bring their life experiences and prior classroom experiences as students into their initial teaching practice.” (Abdullah, S. A., Llanes, J. R. & Henry, D. p.34).
    - - Data and Methods
        
        “Recent research has found that teachers’ classroom-aggregate ratings on the Tripod predict students learning gains not only for the students who provided the rating but also for students in other classrooms of students taught by the same teacher” (Cherng, H. S., & Halpin, P. F. p.3).
        
        “The MET study only tracked teachers over year, not students. While many students contributed data in both years of the study, it is not possible to link student data over years, and hence it is not possible to use both years for multilevel modeling.” (Cherng,2016, pg 3)
      - Implications
        
        “ In the end, minority teachers, who likely possess tools to form strong ties with students, can help empower youth of all racial/ethnic identities.” (Cherng, H. S., & Halpin, P. F. p.11).
      - Discussion Summary
        
        “We also find mixed evidence that perceptions of minority students depend on the race/ethnicity of their teacher: Black students have particularly favorable perceptions of Black teachers, but the same is not true for Latino students and Latino teachers” (Cherng, H. S., & Halpin, P. F. p.6).
      - Results
        
        “ female students also have more favorable perceptions of teachers across six of the seven outcome measures (the exception is control, for which girls are similar in their perceptions to boys)” (Cherng, H. S., & Halpin, P. F. p.5).
        
        “In general, minority students have more positive perceptions of their teachers than White students” (Cherng,2016, pg 5)
        
        All Students respond better to minority teachers
      - Analytical Strategy
        
        “This approach also allowed for examination of whether students have more favorable perceptions of co-racial/ethnic teachers by the inclusion of interactions terms between student and teacher race/ethnicity” (Cherng,2016, pg 5)
      - A Demographic Divide: The Importance of Racial/ Ethnic Mismatch in Teacher and Student Populations
        
        “Scholars have argued that positive student-teacher race matching effects may be explained in part by students having more favorable perceptions of minority teachers” (Cherng, H. S., & Halpin, P. F. p.2).
        
        “Although previous research has addressed teachers’ perceptions of students and explored questions of race matching, relatively little work has explicitly addressed whether students, and especially minority students, have more favorable perceptions of minority versus non-minority teachers.” (Cherng,2016, pg 2)
        
        “Teachers have higher expectations of White and Asian American students and lower expectations of Latino and Black students” (Cherng, H. S., & Halpin, P. F. p.2).