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Perception (Perception and Decision Making (Decisions - choices made among…

- - - - Distinctiveness
        
        whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations
        High - external
        Low - internal
      - Consensus
        
        everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way
        High - external
        Low - internal
      - Consistency
        
        do they respond the same way over time
        High - internal
        Low - external
    - - The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgements about the behaviour of other
    - - The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors
  - - - drawing general impression based on single characteristic
    - - our evaluations of others can be affected by comparisons with others who rank higher or lower on the same characteristic
    - - tendency to select information based on our own interests, background, experiences and attitudes
    - - judging others based on the perception of a group to which they belong
  - - - self fulfilling prophecy - a situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a second person, and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in a ways consistent with the original perception
      - works for high or low expectations
    - - subjectively evaluation can be subject to shortcuts in judgement
    - - form impressions of people within 1/10th of a second
      - little change after first 5 minutes
      - absence of unfavourable characteristics rather than presence of favourable ones
- - - - Define the problem.
      - Identify the decision criteria.
      - Allocate weights to the criteria.
      - Develop the alternatives.
      - Evaluate the alternatives.
      - Select the best alternative.
  - - - tendency to fixate on initial info, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent info
    - - being overconfident about our own abilities and the abilities of others
    - - tendency for people to base their judgements on info that is readily available to them
    - - tendency to seek out info that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgement
    - - an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative info
    - - the tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome would have a higher expected payoff
    - - the tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events
    - - the tendency to believe falsely, that after an outcome of the event is actually known, that the individual could have predicted this outcome
    - - Try not to create meaning out of random events
      - Increase your options
      - Look for info that dis-confirms your beliefs
      - Focus of goals
- - - - being smart doesn’t alert you to the possibility you’re too confident or emotionally defensive
      - intelligent people can adjust better to avoid decision making errors
    - - differ in their time orientation, the value they place on rationality, their belief in the ability of people to solve problems and their preference for collective decision making
      - solve cultures emphasise solving problems, while others prefer to accept solutions as they are
    - - depends on circumstance
      - stress
        men - take risks
        women - become more empathetic
      - women spend more time analysing - may over analyse problems
    - - susceptibility to suggestion
      - strategic placement of facts and figures to influence decision making
    - - facets of conscientiousness - achievement striving and dutifulness
      - achievement striving tend to escalate commitment, dutiful individuals less so
      - achievement striving individuals more susceptible to hindsight bias
  - - - suggesting which choices have better personal payoffs
        e.g rewarding risk aversion
    - - rules and policies to program decisions and to get individuals to react in the intended manner
    - - managers influenced by criteria on which they are evaluated
    - - choices heavily influenced by previously made choices
    - - important decisions come with explicit deadlines - difficulty in gathering all information
- - - - calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights
      - protecting the basic rights of individuals, such as the right to privacy, to free speech, and to due process
      - protects whistle blowers - individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders
    - - individuals to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that there is an equitable distribution of benefits and costs
    - - decisions are made solely based on their outcomes and consequences
      - provide greatest good for greatest number
  - - - lighting, outward displays of wealth and status,
        and cleanliness—can affect ethical behavior in organizations
- - - - Information Gathering
        
        possible solutions to the problem incubate in individual's mind
      - Idea Generation
        
        developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant information and knowledge
      - Problem Formation
        
        identify problem or opportunity that requires solution that is yet unknown
      - Idea Evaluation
        
        evaluation of potential solutions to the problem to identify the best one
  - - - Personality
        
        openness to experience correlates - more divergent in thinking
        
        'mad genius' theory
      - Expertise
        
        most important predictor
        
        individuals have experience, knowledge and proficiency in their field of endeavour
      - Intelligence
        
        smart people better at solving complex problems
      - Ethics
        
        uncorrelated
    - - being in an environment where creative potential can be realised
      - work in environment that recognises and values creative work
      - abundance of resources to use
      - good leadership - fostering creativity
      - culture - countires that score high on Hofstede’s culture dimension of individuality - more creative
        e.g US, Italy, Belgium
  - - - creative solution rejected by management
      - teams isolate those that generate different solutions
      - idea developed but never shared