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Findings #7 (Jigsaw Group) (Social Justice Throughout The Curriculum…

- - - - “A large amount of information about school-related activities was sent to students’ homes by mail or with students in their backpacks.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 71)
        
        “Differences between families in education and family structure deeply affected how they used their time.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 71)
        
        “Middle-income and affluent families' lives were very busy and heavily scheduled; however, these families relied on multiple social supports that gave them "more time" to engage their children and their activities. This time was made available by paying for costly childcare, having one parent stay at home, or hiring housekeepers to do basic household chores.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 72)
        
        “Lower-income families had less time to read, process, and respond to materials sent home.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 71-72)
        
        This made sense to me and helped me understand this issue better
      - “School staff and the rules they set play an active role in determining which parents are engaged and what they receive from their engagement.”(Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 70)
      - “The administration of formal information, almost exclusively on written form, sorted families into and out of opportunities.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 72)
        
        This made me realize that schools do not purposefully leave people out. When something is created for a specific group in mind of course it will work better for who it was made for. Therefore, white schools work better for white people because they have been built by white people and for white people.
      - “Schools are complex organizations with unique cultures that help shape and structure parental engagement. It is not enough to have a parent who is interested in being engaged; schools and their staff shape and broker what is appropriate or desirable parental engagement.”(Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 70)
    - - “This desire to increase the chances of their child’s success cut across social class and race. However, I found that parents' ability to customize their children, education was influenced by class, but more importantly, circumscribed by race.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 73)
        
        “As eager parents attempted to engage with schools to customize their children's education, their reception by school staff ultimately ushered parents into the role of consumer or beneficiary.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 73)
    - - “Across racial and class categories I observed a healthy desire among parents to customize the educational opportunities of their children, bur their desires were met with institutional cultures and structures that guided parents into specific roles.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 74)
        
        “It was common for white parents to assume the role of consumer. Consumer parents viewed schools as a customizable resource, and they fashioned schools to fit their children’s educational and social developmental needs.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 74)
        
        This makes sense to me because parents are paying taxes so of course they expect to get what they want. Our society is selfish and it shows especially in the way parents deal with schools. I do not think that parents have the right to change things to however they want them to be. They should expect that if they're putting their child in a public institution then they are not going to have control over their child's education. That's sacrifice a lot of white parents are not willing to accept. They want control but in reality they have given up all control by sending their student to a public school.
        
        “The beneficiary role was more common among black parents in Rolling Acres Public Schools. Parents in the role of beneficiary viewed schools as a resource that had children, best social and educational development in mind and did little to customize their children’s education. Beneficiary parents often followed the school’s programming and suggestions with the hope of ensuring that their children received a good education." (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 74)
        
        Black gratitude for education as a resource could be due to history.
    - - There is a difference in cultures which creates a difference in the way things re communicated. This is true of a people group, not just black and white. This helped me realize that a lot of the fundamental problems that stem from segregation is due to inability to compromise on both ends of the spectrum.
    - - “The failure to see the role of race in relations between white and black families is an important theoretical oversight and leads to empirical misspecifications of how parental engagement operates.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 68)
    - - “Schools and their staffs are important brokers of parental engagement, particularly parental participation. Outwardly, schools and their staff say they desire high levels of engagement and participation from all parents; in my observations, however, I found that school staff worked diligently to decide how parents got involved and which parents were engaged.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 75)
      - Examination Experiment
        
        “The cases of Ms. Towles and Ms. Martin display the different experiences of two parents who were dedicated to their children's education and wanted to engage with the school. They were received differently by the school staff and this led to disparate outcomes. Both mothers attributed their treatment to their race, but their responses to the discrimination they perceived were different. These experiences suggest that race mattered for both parents, but the depth of this racial effect was mediated by their habitus.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 81-82)
        
        “Ms. Martin felt that the school staff did not respect her as a parent and attempted to block her participation, which frustrated her. Over the course of four months, I watched her change from a concerned parent who actively attempted engagement to a parent who felt defeated by her blocked efforts and resigned to accepting whatever opportunities to engage that were offered.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 76)
        
        I believe this is true of a lot of parent's involvement with schools. They are misunderstood and their feedback is not received well. School systems tend to ignore problems instead of confronting them and getting everything out on the table. A lot of times because they are scared that they will be labeled as discriminatory.
        
        “Throughout my time in the field, unlike Ms. Martin, Ms. Towles was a very engaged parent, but her engagement was rife with race-related hurdles at her son's school, which she negotiated successfully, in part because of her habitus.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 76-77)
      - “parental engagement is not always finite or neat; rather it reflects a complex relationship between home and school in which family background, school culture, and educational demands intersect and create divergent educational experiences” (Lewis-McCoy, 68)
    - - “Instead, accumulated experiences as well as tales of disconnection discouraged continued pursuit of low-income and racial-minority families by school staff.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 84)
      - “Thus the flow of information and support was also stratified by race and class. Parents organized and lobbied in ways that highlight how race- and class- stratified parental networks blocked access to equal educational opportunities.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 87)
        
        I found this statement very interesting because I had never thought about the equal concern parents share. This statement shows that race and class does play a part in parent involvement
      - “In interviews, parents said that parental networks were largely homogeneous, both racially and economically, and I noted the same thing in my observations. Thus the flow of information and support was also stratified by race and class. Parents organized and lobbied in ways that highlight how race- and class-stratified parental networks blocked access to equal educational opportunities.” (Lewis-McCoy, 87)
    - - “To some parents her short tenure at each school signaled a problem and raised a flag. Many concerned parents raised the issue of her reported absences from school and from her teaching responsibilities.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 87)
      - “Perceptions of Ms. Baker’s actions seemed to be more important to parents than
        verifying the validity of the claims against her.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 88)
    - - “Concerns about Ms. Baker quickly moved from individual consumer families to
        organized groups of parents. The collective response was spear-headed by parents in the wealthy Beaver subdivision.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 89)
        
        Would the concern have been as rampant if Ms. Baker was white? Race has been such a controversial topic that I think white people are scared to actually resolve anything that goes on. Yes they accuse Ms. Baker, but because she was black they were all too chicken to actually resolve the issue as a community. Instead they did the bitchy thing and went behind her back.
      - “Principal Bell and Principal Tyler’s experience and added the suggestion there was pressure from the school district to retain the most affluent families..., which pressured building staff to keep them satisfied. As a result, principals were constantly doing a delicate dance of listening, response, and selective action.” (Lewis-McCoy, 2014, p. 91)
        
        I believe that there are a lot of issues in schools that put administration into sticky situations, sometimes situations that have no right answer,
    - - "In particular, Principal Bell consistently dealt with a core group of affluent white parents who demanded educational customization for their children (classroom placement, priority in extracurricular opportunities, and others) and threatened to leave if their requests were not fulfilled; and she was among the district staff who feared these affluent families’ exit."
      - "These demanding parents’ engagement not only affected their children’s lives but also influenced the chances that other families would want to customize their children’s education. In education research, parental engagement is often viewed as desirable and is associated with positive school experiences and schooling outcomes.1 However, parental engagement is multidimensional, and beyond the positive image that is promoted there are negative dimensions as well, which affect the access of all families to a high-quality education."
      - “In this chapter, I argue that the current literature on parental engagement has under-theorized the role of race by overemphasizing social class, and that current models lack sufficient consideration of the interfamilial influences of parental engagement—particularly concerted cultivation.” (Lewis-McCoy, 67)
    - - “The data and analysis presented in this chapter make it clear that parental engagement is not equally accessible to all families.” their daily lives to communicate about school, sports, and neighborhood events, but not all families were given equal access.” (Lewis-McCoy, 94)
      - “Black families and white families, despite living in the same city, did not have similar home-school relations. All families began the process with the goal of increasing opportunities for their children, but the roles they filled and the experiences they had were separate and unequal.” (Lewis-McCoy, 94)
- - - - “This project is an extension of the ﬁrst author’s larger study that aims to record and analyze what teachers are actually saying—and doing—when teaching for social justice in order to map beginning and veteran teachers’ perspectives and pedagogical possibilities for public schools. The original pool of beginning teachers was limited to the alumni of a cohort within a larger teacher education program organized around the theme of teaching for social justice, and as a result, participants were all secondary teachers.
    - - “Anti-oppression educators work to create classrooms where their students can think about where they stand on social issues and what they might do to ameliorate suffering and inequities among groups of people with whom they are familiar as well as those with whom they have had little or no contact” (Kelly and Brooks, 2009, p 203).
      - We recognize that there are multiple, contested meanings of the term “teaching for social justice”; indeed, we sought to investigate these multiple meanings in the course of this project.
        
        “We recognize that there are multiple, contested meanings of the term “teaching for social justice”; indeed, we sought to investigate these multiple meanings in the course of this project. In this article, however, we do not have the space to present a comprehensive view of this complex ﬁeld and, therefore, do not attempt to describe all the varieties of equity-oriented pedagogies that might be identiﬁed” (Kelly, 2009, pg. 203).
        
        I used to think that children do need to be sheltered but after hearing about what is presented in this article I think that children can accommodate for more than we give them credit. I do not think it is the school's place to indoctrinate their students on controversial topics, however it is good that student learn from a young age what is right and what is wrong. But in this day and age that seems to be personal opinion.
      - Specifically, we highlight the theoretical assumptions underlying three key elements of an anti-oppression approach. The first element involves teachers in a critical analysis of social and institutional inequities and oppression based on gender, race, culture, sexuality, social class, ability, age, and so on.
    - - “We need to know more about how children’s understanding of various equity-related issues develops with age while simultaneously viewing “child development within different social, cultural, political and economic contexts of childhood” (Kelly and Brooks, 2004, p 214).
    - - “Many teachers said that protecting childhood innocence would not inﬂuence their choice of topic but, rather, their approach to it. They emphasized tailoring their approach based on their knowledge of and time with, the children” (Kelly and Brooks, 2004, p 208).
        
        “The greater the belief in childhood innocence, the more likely teachers were to intimate or state that they would avoid “iffy,” “scary,” or “heavy” topics unless their early primary students raised them ﬁrst. Nita mentioned “drugs,” “gays and lesbians,” and “racism” as “iffy.” (Kelly, 2009, pg. 208).
    - - Teachers' Assumptions about Children's Cognitive and Emotional Capacities
        
        “By political, we mean not just democratic decision-making or voting in elections but “all aspects of institutional organization, public action, social practices and habits, and cultural meanings insofar as they are potentially subject to collective evaluation and decision-making” (Kelly and Brooks, 2004, p 211).
      - Teachers' Assumptions about Children's Political-Evaluative Capacity
        
        “The issue of children’s ability to form their own opinion—captured in everyday metaphors of children as “sponges,” “blank slates,” and “parrots” versus the less common image of children as active meaning-makers—is crucial” (Kelly and Brooks, 2004, p 209).
      - The Difference Student Age Makes in Teaching for Social Justice
  - - - Philosophical/Conceptual
        
        “They argue that we must look for equality in five dimensions: “resources; respect and recognition; love, care and solidarity; power; and working and learning” (p.132). Within each of these dimensions, they describe how we may change educational practice to support a more holistic vision of equality in education” (Hytten, 2011, p 12).
        
        I agree with this but I do not agree with how these goals have been carried out or in how these goals have been misinterpreted. .This has helped me to think about how my own thinking aligns with these goals yet it is so far from what has taken place in society.
        
        The social democratic perspective, largely drawn from Marx, considers justice in relationship to the needs of various individuals, emphasizing a more collectivist or cooperative vision of society” (Hytten, 2011, p 11).
        
        a. “Writings in the philosophical or conceptual strand of the literature aim to tease out the meaning of justice in abstract, philosophical and/or theoretical terms. One of the most commonly cited pieces in this vein is Iris Marion Young’s (1990) Justice and the Politics of Difference, which comes out of philosophical and political theory. (Hytten, 2011, pg. 11).
      - Practical
        
        “Describing education for social justice, Bell (1997) characterizes it as “both a process and a goal” with the ultimate aim being “full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs” (Hytten, 2011, p 8).
        
        “In addition to lists of components/attributes that would characterize socially just schools, leaders, and education programs, this strand of work also includes descriptions or models of programs oriented towards social justice. (Hytten, 2011, pg. 13).
      - Ethnographic/Narrative
      - Theoretically Specific
        
        “Similar to multiculturalism, critical pedagogy invariably comes to mind as an educational movement aimed explicitly at transforming oppressive social structures. While there are a variety of traditions within critical pedagogy, they all share a broad objective “to empower the powerless and transform existing social inequalities and injustices” (McLaren, 2003, p. 186)” (Hytten, 2011, pg. 17).
        
        This makes sense to me. Multiculturalism and critical pedagogy are similar in nature. They both have the same aims but what they try to accomplish is similar but different.
        
        “Most recently, more critical multiculturalists have focused their attention on disrupting white supremacy and capitalism, maintaining that these discourses significantly frame how we understand issues of cultural difference” (Hytten, 2011, p 17).
      - Democratically Grounded
        
        “A fifth strand in the literature grounds justice in visions of what it means to be an educated person in a democracy. Educators coming to social justice from this perspective situate their thinking about justice in connection to considering the fundamental purposes of education in a democratic society” (Hytten, 2011, pg. 19).
        
        “A fifth strand in the literature grounds justice in visions of what it means to be an educated person in a democracy. Educators coming to social justice from this perspective situate their thinking about justice in connection to considering the fundamental purposes of education in a democratic society” (Hytten, 2011, p 19).
        
        Why just democratic? Many systems are trying to do things for the betterment of everyone yet because they are not labeled as specifically "social justice" they receive slander and are considered non-inclusive.
- - - - “the lowest performing students often end up less educated, earning less, paying less tax, being incarcerated at higher rates, and using social services and welfare benefits disproportionately”(Ceci, 2005, p. 150)
        
        I agree with this although I do not think it is fair. Lower performing students do need help but so does the student who is doing well. Under-performance is not something that should be excused. A lot of the issues that come from under performing students is not because the student cannot learn or is not smart. It is often due to the way the student is raised and educated.
      - “Some might argue that the disadvantaged groups may fail to benefit from interventions, not because of any innate deficiencies but rather because of a long history of power differentials, racism, and more subtle forms of institutional discrimination that moderate the effectiveness of interventions for them.”(Ceci, 2005, p. 152)
      - “The very children who are reading well and who have good vocabularies will read more, learn more word meanings, and hence read even better. Children with inadequate vocabularies— who read slowly and without enjoyment—read less, and as a result have slower development of vocabulary knowledge, which inhibits further growth in reading ability ”(Ceci, 2005, p. 149)
        
        Well duh!
    - - “reasonable to provide special help or special services for those who would otherwise be handicapped, impaired, or disadvantaged as a result of their group membership (as a result of where they live, their ethnicity, social circumstances, institutional discrimination, etc.)”(Ceci, 2005, p. 158)
      - “the goal of an enlightened nation’s policies should be to remove impediments rather than reduce the spread of individual differences”(Ceci, 2005, p. 158)
    - - Performance-Based Benefits: “Looking across rather than within age groups, one sees that a similar gap widening occurs as older children increase their advantage over their younger counterparts when they are offered the same intervention given to younger children.”(Ceci, 2005, p. 153)
      - Utilization-Based Benefits “children from advantaged families can be expected to utilize such interventions more frequently and, as a result, advantaged families benefit more from them, thereby widening any pre existing gaps”(Ceci, 2005, p. 154)
        
        This is not something schools can solve. Education cannot change where people come from or who they are. Teachers and schools can encourage involvement and the accumulation of knowledge but the student themselves are the ones who have to want to learn. A teacher's job is to assist the student and give the student the resources they need. Not solve the achievement gap. I mean what does the achievement gap even matter? The important thing is that students are learning, no matter what "level" they're at.
      - Technology: “even if such interventions provided proportionate gains to all recipients, on a population level the higher functioning groups sometimes benefit more because they are more likely to utilize them, thereby unintentionally widening pre existing gaps”(Ceci, 2005, p. 154)
    - - "Perhaps universal interventions widen the gap because they are directed toward the middle-or upper level individual" (Ceci, 2005, p. 157).
      - "From a political and economic standpoint, a similar argument can be made in favor of universal exposure to interventions that are known to be beneficial. A nation's next generation of leaders is drawn overwhelmingly from the top 10% of it's students" (Ceci, 2005, p. 157).
    - - “One motivation for targeted interventions is what theorists from multiple disciplines (e.g., economics, sociology, psychology) have described as the Matthew effect.”
        
        “in its original biblical sense referred to the amplification of one’s initial faith that results from initially stronger faith held by one group, contemporary thinkers have invoked it to refer to the amplification of any initial advantage that leads to cumulative differences that widen preexisting gaps.”
        
        In the process of narrowing the gap you can't hold back students who would otherwise be excelling forward.
    - - . America has no national policy that (a) explicitly frames intervention programs in terms of consensual political philosophy that is mindful of both the need to elevate the top students and the need to redress past injustice, (b) acknowledges the types of outcomes that we have described here, and (c) considers what mix of interventions will best achieve national interests and values.
  - - - Resegregation Problem
        
        “What African American parents did not know but history would later prove is that segregation would not end with either the decision in the Brown case or the passage of IDEA. Their children would not attend integrated schools and those with disabilities would not have the access to the general education curriculum and their peers without disabilities that they had hoped for.”
        
        “It is surprising that even though IDEA has made it possible for students with disabilities to be educated in general education classroom settings, African American students are still more likely than any other group of students to be segregated and not placed in general education classrooms to the extent of their peers labeled as having disabilities.”
        
        I believe that a lot of what is described here is not necessarily because of the schools themselves. This lack of "labeling" could be due to parents beliefs or because of these students style of learning.
        
        White Middle-class parents encourage failure of urban schooling to provide social mobility for their own children in "better" schools
      - Three legislative actions have been credited with significantly changing the way American society views, treats, and responds to the needs of individuals with disabilities
        
         “Although all of these legislations have brought about great positive changes for individuals with disabilities, IDEA is acknowledged as the single most important education legislation for students with disabilities because it guarantees the students’ right to:”(Blanchett, 2009, p. 374)
        
        a free and appropriate public education
        
        the least restrictive environment or placement
        
        an individualized education program
        
        appropriate and nondiscriminatory evaluations
        
        parental and student participation in decision making
        
        procedural safeguards
        
        Section 504 of The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973
        
        The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
        
        The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 currently known as IDEA
      - o “PARC v. the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972) guaranteed special education services to children and youth with mental retardation (Smith, 2004). However, the decision in this case did not address educational provisions for children with disabilities other than mental retardation.”(Blanchett, 2009, p. 374)
      - Special Education
        
        “Prior to the Brown decision and even in the 16 years after the decision, public schools were not obligated to educate students with disabilities.” (Blanchett 2009 373)
        
        “As a consequence, excluding them from public education and/or educating them in segregated settings with little or no exposure to their nondisabled peers was perfectly legal.” (Blanchett 2009 373)
        
        This is constitutionally the freedom of choice. Parents should be able to choose where to send their kids. Segregation happens no matter where you are. People groups are identified then that becomes classified as "segregation".
        
        Full inclusion called for providing all special education services to students with disabilities in the general education context without removing students from the classroom
        
        Students with disabilities who are included in general education classrooms have higher levels of social skills, are more accepted by their non-disabled peers, and have greater exposure to the general education curriculum. (377)
      - Brown vs. Board
        
        “Before the Brown litigation and subsequent decision, African American students and students with disabilities had similar experiences in the American educational system.” (Blanchett 2009 372)
        
        “Both were treated as second-class citizens. Moreover, African American students with disabilities have experienced double jeopardy in the American educational system.” (Blanchett 2009 372-373)
        
        How are they treated as a second class citizen when they are the ones that get specialized attention?
        
        “Such terms as ghetto-like and run-down have often been used to describe the physical environments of some of the segregated schools that African American students attended prior to Brown regardless of the presence or absence of a disability (Losen & Orfield, 2002).” (Blanchett 2009 373)
        
        “In addition to prohibiting racial segregation in public education, the Brown decision was especially important in securing appropriate educational services and opportunities for students with disabilities.” (Blanchett 2009 372)
        
        “Fifty-plus years removed from the historic Brown decision, literally thousands of students labeled as having disabilities, African American students, other students of color, and poor students in urban schools are still not receiving the equitable education in the American educational system promised to them.” (Blanchett 2009 371)
        
        In addition to prohibiting racial segregation in public education, the Brown decision was especially important in securing appropriate educational services and opportunities for students with disabilities. (372)
        
        “The decision in the Brown v. the Board of Education case laid the foundation for litigation to challenge the constitutionality of “separate but equal” as it related to public schooling opportunities for students with disabilities (Blanchett et al., 2005).” (Blanchett 2009 373)
        
        “Because the Supreme Court in its decision in this case established that forcing African American students to attend segregated or Black-only public schools denied them equal protection under the law as guaranteed by the 14th amendment, advocates and parents of students with disabilities were able to use this decision to argue against the segregation of students with disabilities on the basis of disability.” (Blanchett 2009 373)
- - - - Discussion
        
        “Despite these limitations, findings from this article attest to the importance of having diversity among the teaching force. Research has shown that students’ perceptions of teachers are associated with motivation and achievement and that having a more diverse teaching force can help close longstanding racial achievement gaps.” (Chernig & Halpin, 2016, p. 11)
        
        Although I have never had diverse teachers I think that this solution would benefit many schools because students have to actually be exposed to diversity in order to understand it and accept it.
      - Introduction
        
        Minority teachers in particular may be perceived more favorably by minority students because they can serve as role models and are particularly sensitive to the cultural needs of their students. (Cherng, 2016, p.2)
        
        I believe this but then again I don't. The reason being that students do need a teacher that they can relate to and someone who can understand them. However, I think that being the same race does not always provide for this type of learning. The thinking that teachers can only relate to students of their same color is racist in itself. I know a lot of students who have learned from teachers who were different than them in many ways.
        
        The vast demographic divide between teachers and students is of growing educational and public concern. (Cherng, 2016, p. 1)
      - Data and Methods
        
        In this analysis, we do not make use of the entire MET database but instead focus on teachers in middle school (Grades 6–8) and ninth grade. We focus on this age group for two reasons. (Cherng, 2016, p. 3)
        
        First, past research has identified adolescence as a period in which young people rely increasingly on adult mentorship, such as relationships formed with teachers, and less on parents (Collins & Steinberg, 2006). (Cherng, 2016, p. 3)
        
        Second, the outcome measures used in our analyses (see Measures section) were assessed using different forms in primary and secondary grades. (Cherng, 2016, p. 3)
        
        Recent research has found that teachers’ classroom-aggregate ratings on the Tripod predict students learning gains not only for the students who provided the rating but also for students in other classrooms of students taught by the same teacher (Raudenbush & Jean, 2014). This work indicates that students are able to reliably identify meaningful features of their teachers’ practices. (Cherng, 2016, p. 3)
      - Analytical Strategies
        
        Results
        
        "On seven and five measures, students have more favorable perceptions of Latino and Black teachers, respectively, than White teachers," (Cherng and Halpin p. 5).
        
        "For example, students report that Latino and Black teachers are clearer than White teachers, and the differences equal 0.14 and 0.11 standard deviations, respectively," (Cherng and Halpin p. 5).
        
        Could this be because too many under qualified whites are pursuing teaching? It could be that few black and latino students go into teaching because it is seen culturally as a "white mans job". Therefore the ones who do go into teaching have to have an extreme passion for it to even want to pursue it in the first place
        
        “Asian, Latino, and Black students have more favorable perceptions of teachers’ abilities to captivate their attention, consolidate information, and clarify information compared to their White peers. Moreover, female students also have more favorable perceptions of teachers across six of the seven outcome measures (the exception is control, for which girls are similar in their perceptions to boys).”
        
        "To further investigate these relations, we employed multilevel linear regression analyses to control for students' demographic and academic characteristics as well as other teacher characteristics, teaching conditions, and teacher effectiveness," (Cherng and Halpin p. 5).
        
        "This approach also allowed for examination of whether students have more favorable perceptions of co-racial/ethnic teachers by the inclusion of interactions terms between student and teacher racce/ethnicity," (Cherng and Halpin p. 5).
        
        "The covariates imputed were the student's math test scores, teachers' years of experience, and whether the teacher had a master's degree," (Cherng and Halpin p. 5).
  - - - “Fifty years after school desegregation, white middle-class students are still being raised in racially segregated schools (Orfield, & Lee 2007), attending segregated social and religious institutions and having little or no experience with members of other racial groups. When they arrive at predominantly white higher education institutions such as the one in this study, they find even greater opportunities to share their preconceptions, reinforce their stereotypes and continue avoiding other cultures rather than utilizing the opportunities to familiarize themselves with other perspectives” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 34).
        
        Although this is sad, I agree that this is what is true about our culture today. In our attempt to create supreme equality, we have forgotten that everyone is different.
      - Since their previous mostly segregated life experience guided their thinking and performance of their assigned pre-teaching task they find that they are not as successful as they expected or hoped.” (Abdullah, Llanes, & Henry, 2015, p. 34)
      - Literature Review
        
        Ladson-Billings (1992) encourages white pre-service teachers to develop self-concepts and understandings of their students that are based on historical facts and current events and avoid thinking of their students of color as victims of slavery and other forms of discrimination” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 35).
        
        “This phenomenon also can be seen in schools that serve low-income populations that are also white and in African-American environments and increasingly in Latin, Asian and Middle Eastern populations. There’s recurring evidence that teachers are entering classrooms cross-racially incompetent; meaning they have never had significant experiences with students from different racial backgrounds” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 35).
      - Results
        
        “An assumption can hamper one’s ability to understand cultural and experiential differences that may exist among their future students.” (Abdullah, Llanes, & Henry, 2015, p. (Abdullah, Llanes, & Henry, 2015, p. 38)
        
        A majority of the students found it hard to empathize with the some of the people that they worked with and maintained a “them versus us” mentality, evidenced by some of their comparisons across racial lines and the use of words like “them”, “those people”, “American” when referring to themselves and related terms that create clear divisions between the preservice teachers and the people they worked with on their service learning projects” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 37).
      - Recommendations
        
        “Pre-service teachers should also be exposed to multiple diverse populations in their practice and service learning experiences. Educations programs should facilitate more developmentally appropriate service learning, and require professionally relevant service learning with observation components before students can earn their license.” (Abdullah, Llanes, & Henry, 2015, p. 40)
        
        I strongly advocate for this. The teacher I interviewed is at Leverette Elementary in downtown Toledo. Being a white latino growing up in white dominated school and teaching in predominately white schools, she was not prepared for what she has to deal with now in a predominately black school. Pre-service teachers must know how to teach and connect to different cultures, especially if they are teaching in these types of schools
        
        “If pre-service teachers do in fact suffer from what we call White Disadvantage, then it could be argued that they are not able to meet the standards set forth in the state Quality Teaching Standards and should technically not be licensed to teach in this particular state” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 40).
      - Methodology
        
        “Many of the reflections referred to the personal life and upbringing of the preservice teachers themselves. The reflections also discussed the communities that the writers were from, including their education, and social experiences prior to enrolling in the teacher education program” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 36).
        
        • “The course described in this study was both classroom-based and field-based. Students were placed in schools and school-like environments where students performed a service-learning activity. This was a required course for certification as a teacher in this state. More specifically, the Educational Foundations course focused on eight goals for pre-service teachers” (Abdullah, 2015, p. 36).